A number of different spacecraft have been used to carry people to and from outer space.
Spacecraft under development | |
Spacecraft is operational | |
Retired spacecraft | |
‡ | Payload To / From the ISS |
§ | Crewed (Uncrewed) [Includes failures] |
Spacecraft | Origin | Manufacturer | Range | Launch system | Crew size | Length (m) | Diameter (m) | Launch mass (kg) | Power system | Payload (kg) ‡ | First spaceflight § | Last spaceflight | Flights § |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mercury | USA | McDonnell Aircraft North American Aviation | LEO attained | Redstone MRLV Atlas LV-3B | 1 | 3.34 | 1.89 | 1,400 | Batteries | 1961 (1960) | 1963 | 6 (12) [note 1] | |
Gemini | USA | McDonnell Aircraft Martin | LEO | Titan II GLV Titan IIIC [note 2] | 2 | 5.56 | 3.05 | 3,790 | Fuel cells | 1965 (1964) | 1966 | 10 (2) [note 3] | |
Apollo | USA | North American Aviation Grumman and Douglas | Lunar | Saturn IB Saturn V | 3 | 8.5 | 3.91 | 5,500 CM + 14,700 LM + 24,500 Service Module | Fuel cells | 1967 (1966) | 1975 | 15 (4) [note 3] | |
Space Shuttle orbiter | USA | Rockwell International | LEO | Space Shuttle | 8 [note 4] | 37.24 | 4.8 [note 5] | 109,000 | Fuel cells | 12,500/16,000 | 1981 | 2011 | 135 [note 6] |
Soyuz 7K-T | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz Soyuz-U | 2 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,830 | Batteries | 1973 | 1981 | 26 (4) [note 7] | |
Voskhod | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Voskhod | 3 [note 8] | 5 | 2.4 | 5,682 | Batteries | 1964 (1964) | 1965 | 2 (3) | |
Vostok | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO first | Vostok-K | 1 | 4.4 | 2.43 | 4,725 | Batteries | 1961 (1960) | 1963 | 6 (7) [note 9] | |
Soyuz 7K-OK | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,560 | Solar panels | 1967 (1966) | 1970 | 8 (8) [note 10] | |
Soyuz 7KT-OK | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,790 | Solar panels | 1971 | 1971 | 2 [note 11] | |
Soyuz 7K-T-AF | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz | 2 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,570 | Solar panels | 1973 | 1973 | 1 | |
Soyuz 7K-TM | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz-U | 2 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,570 | Solar panels | 1974 | 1975 | 2 (2) | |
Soyuz 7K-MF6 | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz-U | 2 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,510 | Solar panels | 1976 | 1976 | 1 | |
Soyuz-T | Soviet Union | OKB-1 | LEO | Soyuz-U Soyuz-U2 | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 6,850 | Solar panels | 1978 | 1986 | 15 (6) [note 12] | |
Soyuz-TM | Soviet Union Russia | RKK Energia | LEO | Soyuz-U2 Soyuz-U | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 7,250 | Solar panels | 1986 | 2002 | 33 (1) | |
Buran | Soviet Union | RKK Energia | LEO | Energia | 10 | 36.37 | 2.4 [note 13] | 105,000 | Fuel cells | 30,000 [note 14] | N/A (1988) | (1988) | 0 (1) |
Soyuz-TMA 11F732 | Russia | RKK Energia | LEO | Soyuz-FG | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 7,250 | Solar panels | 2002 | 2012 | 22 | |
Soyuz TMA-M 11F747 | Russia | RKK Energia | LEO | Soyuz-FG | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 7,150 | Solar panels | 2010 | 2016 | 19 | |
Shenzhou | China | China Academy of Space Technology | LEO | Chang Zheng 2F | 3 | 9.25 | 2.80 | 7,840 | Solar panels | 2003 (1999) | Active | 12 (5) | |
Soyuz MS | Russia | RKK Energia | LEO | Soyuz-2.1a | 3 | 7.48 | 2.72 | 7,080 | Solar panels | 2016 | Active | 22 (2) | |
Crew Dragon | USA | SpaceX | LEO | Falcon 9 | 4 [1] | 8.1 [2] | 3.7 [3] | 12,055 [4] | Solar Panels | 3,307/2,507 | 2020 (2019) | Active | 11 (1) |
CST-100 Starliner | USA | Boeing | LEO | Atlas V | 7 [note 15] [5] | 5.03 [6] | 4.56 [6] | 13,000 | Solar panels | 2024 (2019) | Testing | 0 (2) | |
Orion | USA | Lockheed Martin Astrium | Lunar, Mars | Space Launch System | 6 | 3.3 | 5 | 8,900 capsule + 12,300 service module | Solar panels | 2025 (2014) | Testing | 0(2) [note 16] | |
Mengzhou | China | China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation | LEO, Lunar | Long March 10 | 7 | 8.8 | 4.5 | 21,600 | Solar panels | 2026 (2020) | Testing | 0 (1) | |
Gaganyaan | India | Indian Space Research Organization | LEO | GSLV Mk III | 3 | 7 | 3.5 | 7,800 | Solar Panels | (Planned: 2024) | Planned | 0 | |
Starship | USA | SpaceX | Solar System [7] [note 17] | Super Heavy [ broken anchor ] | 100 [note 18] | 55 [7] | 9 [7] [note 19] | 1,335,000 [7] | Solar Panels | (Planned: 2023) [7] | Testing | 0 | |
Orel | Russia | RKK Energia | LEO,Lunar | Irtysh (rocket) Angara A5 | 6 | 6.1 | 37,478 | Solar panels | (Planned: 2028) | Planned | 0 | ||
Dream Chaser | USA | Sierra Nevada Corporation | LEO | Vulcan Centaur | 7 [8] [9] | 9 [10] | 7 [note 20] | 11,300 [11] | Solar panels | TBA | Planned | 0 | |
Biconic Space Vehicle | USA | Blue Origin | LEO | New Glenn | 7 | 98 | 7 | TBA | Planned | 0 | |||
Nyx | Germany France | The Exploration Company | LEO,Lunar | Ariane 6 or Falcon 9 | 4 | 8,000 | Solar panels | 4,000 LEO, 2,000 Lunar | TBA | Planned | 0 |
Spacecraft | Origin | Manufacturer | Altitude | Launch system | Crew size | Length (m) | Diameter (m) | Launch mass (kg) | Power system | Generated power (W) | First spaceflight § | Last spaceflight | Flights § |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SpaceShipOne | USA | Scaled Composites | 112 km X Prize | White Knight Hybrid Motor | 1 | 8.53 | 8.05 | 3,600 | Batteries | 2004 | 2004 | 3 [note 21] | |
X-15 | USA | North American Aviation | 108 km altitude | B-52 Ammonia-LOX | 1 | 15.45 | 6.8 | 15,420 | Two 28 volt-300 amp DC generators | 1963 [note 22] | 1963 | 2 [note 23] | |
SpaceShipTwo | USA | Virgin Galactic | 90 km | White Knight Two RocketMotorTwo | 8 [note 24] | 18.3 | 8.3 | 9,740 | Batteries | December 13, 2018 | 2 [note 25] | ||
New Shepard | USA | Blue Origin | 119 km | New Shepard BE-3 | 6 | 18 | 3.7 | 75,000 [note 26] | Batteries | 2021 (2015) | 6 (17) | ||
Spica Rocket | Denmark | Copenhagen Suborbitals | 105 km | BPM100 | 1 | 13 | 1 | 4,100 | Batteries | 2025 | Early Development | 0 | |
SpaceShip III | USA | Virgin Galactic | Approximately 90 km | White Knight Two | 8 [note 27] | 18.3 | 8.3 | 9,740 | Batteries | Unknown | Undergoing initial ground testing | 0 [note 28] |
Human spaceflight is spaceflight with a crew or passengers aboard a spacecraft, often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be remotely operated from ground stations on Earth, or autonomously, without any direct human involvement. People trained for spaceflight are called astronauts, cosmonauts (Russian), or taikonauts (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as spaceflight participants or spacefarers.
Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963. An early highlight of the Space Race, its goal was to put a man into Earth orbit and return him safely, ideally before the Soviet Union. Taken over from the US Air Force by the newly created civilian space agency NASA, it conducted 20 uncrewed developmental flights, and six successful flights by astronauts. The program, which took its name from Roman mythology, cost $2.68 billion. The astronauts were collectively known as the "Mercury Seven", and each spacecraft was given a name ending with a "7" by its pilot.
A spacecraft is a vehicle that is designed to fly and operate in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, Earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, and transportation of humans and cargo. All spacecraft except single-stage-to-orbit vehicles cannot get into space on their own, and require a launch vehicle.
Spaceflight is an application of astronautics to fly objects, usually spacecraft, into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in orbit around Earth, but also includes space probes for flights beyond Earth orbit. Such spaceflight operate either by telerobotic or autonomous control. The more complex human spaceflight has been pursued soon after the first orbital satellites and has reached the Moon and permanent human presence in space around Earth, particularly with the use of space stations. Human spaceflight programs include the Soyuz, Shenzhou, the past Apollo Moon landing and the Space Shuttle programs. Other current spaceflight are conducted to the International Space Station and to China's Tiangong Space Station.
Soyuz is a series of spacecraft which has been in service since the 1960s, having made more than 140 flights. It was designed for the Soviet space program by the Korolev Design Bureau. The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was originally built as part of the Soviet crewed lunar programs. It is launched on a Soyuz rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Between the 2011 retirement of the Space Shuttle and the 2020 demo flight of SpaceX Crew Dragon, the Soyuz served as the only means to ferry crew to or from the International Space Station, for which it remains heavily used. Although China did launch crewed Shenzhou flights during this time, none of them docked with the ISS.
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.
A spaceplane is a vehicle that can fly and glide like an aircraft in Earth's atmosphere and maneuver like a spacecraft in outer space. To do so, spaceplanes must incorporate features of both aircraft and spacecraft. Orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to conventional spacecraft, while sub-orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to fixed-wing aircraft. All spaceplanes to date have been rocket-powered for takeoff and climb, but have then landed as unpowered gliders.
A space rendezvous is a set of orbital maneuvers during which two spacecraft, one of which is often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance. Rendezvous requires a precise match of the orbital velocities and position vectors of the two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance through orbital station-keeping. Rendezvous may or may not be followed by docking or berthing, procedures which bring the spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them.
A space capsule is a spacecraft designed to transport cargo, scientific experiments, and/or astronauts to and from space. Capsules are distinguished from other spacecraft by the ability to survive reentry and return a payload to the Earth's surface from orbit or sub-orbit, and are distinguished from other types of recoverable spacecraft by their blunt shape, not having wings and often containing little fuel other than what is necessary for a safe return. Capsule-based crewed spacecraft such as Soyuz or Orion are often supported by a service or adapter module, and sometimes augmented with an extra module for extended space operations. Capsules make up the majority of crewed spacecraft designs, although one crewed spaceplane, the Space Shuttle, has flown in orbit.
A launch escape system (LES) or launch abort system (LAS) is a crew-safety system connected to a space capsule. It is used in the event of a critical emergency to quickly separate the capsule from its launch vehicle in case of an emergency requiring the abort of the launch, such as an impending explosion. The LES is typically controlled by a combination of automatic rocket failure detection, and a manual activation for the crew commander's use. The LES may be used while the launch vehicle is on the launch pad, or during its ascent. Such systems are usually of three types:
Spaceflight began in the 20th century following theoretical and practical breakthroughs by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert H. Goddard, and Hermann Oberth, each of whom published works proposing rockets as the means for spaceflight. The first successful large-scale rocket programs were initiated in Nazi Germany by Wernher von Braun. The Soviet Union took the lead in the post-war Space Race, launching the first satellite, the first animal, the first human and the first woman into orbit. The United States would then land the first men on the Moon in 1969. Through the late 20th century, France, the United Kingdom, Japan, and China were also working on projects to reach space.
The Boeing Starliner is a class of partially reusable spacecraft designed to transport crew to the International Space Station (ISS) and other low-Earth-orbit destinations. It is manufactured by Boeing, with the Commercial Crew Program (CCP) of NASA as the lead customer. The spacecraft consists of a crew capsule that can be reused on up to ten missions and an expendable service module.
Dragon 2 is a class of partially reusable spacecraft developed, manufactured, and operated by American space company SpaceX, primarily for flights to the International Space Station (ISS). SpaceX also launches private missions, such as Inspiration4 and Axiom Space Missions. There are two variants of the Dragon spacecraft: Crew Dragon, a spacecraft capable of ferrying four crewmembers, and Cargo Dragon, a replacement for the original Dragon 1 used to carry freight to and from space. The spacecraft consists of a reusable space capsule and an expendable trunk module. The spacecraft launches atop a Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket and the capsule returns to Earth through splashdown. It has proven to be the most cost effective spacecraft in history to be used by NASA.
SpaceXCrew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test was a successful test of the SpaceX Dragon 2 abort system, conducted on 19 January 2020. It was the final assessment for the Crew Dragon capsule and Falcon 9 launch system before they would be certified to carry humans into space. Booster B1046.4 and an uncrewed capsule C205 were launched from Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) on a suborbital trajectory, followed by an in-flight abort of the capsule at max Q and supersonic speed. The test was carried out successfully: the capsule pulled itself away from the booster after launch control commanded the abort, and landed safely.
The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft, and NASA plans to add Boeing when its Boeing Starliner spacecraft becomes operational no earlier than 2025. NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.
SpaceX Crew-5 was the fifth operational NASA Commercial Crew Program flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft, and the eighth overall crewed orbital flight. The mission was successfully launched on 5 October 2022 with the aim of transporting four crew members to the International Space Station (ISS). The Crew Dragon spacecraft docked at the ISS on 6 October 2022 at 21:01 UTC.
'With [the addition of parachutes] and the angle of the seats, we could not get seven anymore', Shotwell said. "So now we only have four seats. That was kind of a big change for us".