Do-it-yourself biology

Last updated

Do-it-yourself biology (DIY biology, DIY bio) is a biotechnological social movement in which individuals, communities, and small organizations study biology and life science using the same methods as traditional research institutions. DIY biology is primarily undertaken by individuals with limited research training from academia or corporations, who then mentor and oversee other DIY biologists with little or no formal training.[ citation needed ] This may be done as a hobby, as a not-for-profit endeavor for community learning and open-science innovation, or for profit, to start a business.

Contents

Other terms are also associated with the do-it-yourself biology community. The terms biohacking and wetware hacking emphasize the connection to hacker culture and the hacker ethic. [1] The term hacker is used in the original sense of finding new and clever ways to do things. The term biohacking is also used by the grinder body modification community, which is considered related but distinct from the do-it-yourself biology movement. [2] The term biopunk emphasizes the techno-progressive, political, and artistic elements of the movement.

History

The term "biohacking" as well as the concept of do-it-yourself biology has been known as early as 1988. [3] [4] [5]

Biohacking entered the San Francisco programmer and maker communities as early as 2005, through simple demonstrations of basic experiments. As DIYbio experiments became the focus of SuperHappyDevHouse hackers, the hobby gained additional momentum.

In 2005 Rob Carlson wrote in an article in Wired : "The era of garage biology is upon us. Want to participate? Take a moment to buy yourself a lab on eBay." [6] He then set up a garage lab the same year, working on a project he had previously worked at the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California. [7]

In 2008, the DIYbio organization was founded by Jason Bobe and Mackenzie Cowell and its first meeting held. [8]

In 2010, Genspace opened the first community biology lab, [9] Ten months later it was followed by BioCurious, [10] and Victoria Makerspace. Many other labs and organizations followed, including but not limited to Counter Culture Labs in Oakland, CA, Baltimore Underground Science Space in Baltimore, MD, TheLab in Los Angeles, CA and Denver Biolabs in Denver, CO.

It has been estimated that in 2014 there have been 50 DIY biology labs around the world. [11] : 119 

In 2016, the first conference to focus specifically on biohacking was announced to take place in September in Oakland, CA. [12]

Aspects

The DIYbio movement seeks to revise the notion that one must be an academic with an advanced degree to make any significant contribution to the biology community. It allows large numbers of small organizations and individuals to participate in research and development, with spreading knowledge a higher priority than turning profits. [13] In recent years, there are various DIY ways to live healthy and many of them also focuses on different simple ways to biohack mind, [14] body, metabolism [15] [ better source needed ] [16] [17] and sleep. [18]

The motivations for DIY biology include (but aren't limited to) lowered costs, entertainment, medicine, biohacking, life extension, and education. Recent work combining open-source hardware of microcontrollers like the Arduino and RepRap 3-D printers, very low-cost scientific instruments have been developed. [19]

Community laboratory space

Many organizations maintain a laboratory akin to a wet-lab makerspace, providing equipment and supplies for members. Many organizations also run classes and provide training. For a fee (usually between $50 and $100), members can join some spaces and do experiments on their own. [20] [21] [22]

Open source equipment

The DIY biology movement attempts to make available the tools and resources necessary for anyone, including non-professionals, to conduct biological engineering. One of the first pieces of open source laboratory equipment developed was the Dremelfuge by Irish biohacker Cathal Garvey, which uses a 3D printed tube holder attached to a Dremel rotary tool to spin tubes at high speeds, replacing often expensive centrifuges. [23] Many other devices like PCR machines have been recreated extensively. [24] [25] [26] In recent times, more complex devices have been created such as the OpenDrop digital microfluidics platform [27] and the DIY NanoDrop [28] both developed by GaudiLabs. Opentrons makes open-source software, affordable lab robots, and got its start as a DIY biology collaboration at Genspace. [29] Incuvers makes telemetric chambers for cellular research that are affordable and allow for complete customizability of their environments. OpenCell, a London based biotech lab provider hosts regular biohackathons to help encourage more opensource development. [30]

Advocacy

Most advocacy in biohacking is about the safety, accessibility and future legality of experimentation. Todd Kuiken of the Woodrow Wilson Center proposes that through safety and self-governance, DIY biologists won't be in need of regulation. [31] Josiah Zayner has proposed that safety is inherent in biohacking and that accessibility should be the foremost concern as there is large underrepresentation of social and ethnic minorities in biohacking. [32]

Research topics

Many biohacking projects revolve around the modification of life and molecular and genetic engineering. [33]

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is another popular target for do-it-yourself biology research. As in other fields, many programming languages can be used in DIY biology, but most of the languages that are used are those with large bioinformatics libraries.

Examples include BioPerl or BioPython, which use the languages Perl and Python, respectively.

Genetic engineering

Genetic Engineers are a subculture of biohackers as one of the most accessible forms of biohacking is through engineering microorganisms or plants. Experiments can range from using plasmids to fluorescent bacteria, controlling gene expression using light in bacteria, [34] even using CRISPR to engineer the genome of bacteria or yeast. [35]

Medicine

Restricted access to medical care and medicine has pushed biohackers to start experimenting in medically related fields. The Open Insulin project aims to make the recombinant protein insulin more accessible by creating an open source protocol for expression and purification. [36] Other experiments that have involved medical treatments include a whole body microbiome transplant [37] and the creation of open source artificial pancreases [38] for diabetics, such as OpenAPS, Loop [39] and AndroidAPS. [40]

Implants

Grinders are a subculture of biohackers that focus on implanting technology [41] or introducing chemicals [42] into the body to enhance or change their bodies' functionality.

Some biohackers can now sense which direction they face using a magnetic implant that vibrates against the skin. [43]

Art

In 2000, controversial and self-described "transgenic artist" Eduardo Kac appropriated standard laboratory work by biotechnology and genetics researchers in order to both utilize and critique such scientific techniques. In the only putative work of transgenic art by Kac, the artist claimed to have collaborated with a French laboratory (belonging to the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique) to procure a green-fluorescent rabbit: a rabbit implanted with a green fluorescent protein gene from a type of jellyfish [Aequorea victoria] in order for the rabbit to fluoresce green under ultraviolet light. The claimed work came to be known as the "GFP bunny", and which Kac called Alba . This claim by Kac has been disputed by the scientists at the lab who noted that they had performed exactly the same experiment (i.e., the insertion of the jellyfish GFP protein-coding gene) on numerous other animals (cats, dogs, etc.) previously and did not create Alba (known to the researchers only as "Rabbit Number 5256") under the direction of Kac. The laboratory consequently kept possession of the transgenic rabbit which it had created and funded and the "transgenic art" was never exhibited at the Digital Avignon festival [2000] as intended. Kac—claiming that his rabbit was the first GFP bunny created in the name of Art—used this dispute to popularize the issue as one of disguised censorship by launching a "Free Alba" campaign. A doctored photo of the artist holding a day-glow-green tinted rabbit appears on his website. [44] The members of the Critical Art Ensemble have written books and staged multimedia performance interventions around this issue, including The Flesh Machine (focusing on in vitro fertilisation, surveillance of the body, and liberal eugenics) and Cult of the New Eve (In order to analyze how, in their words, "Science is the institution of authority regarding the production of knowledge, and tends to replace this particular social function of conventional Christianity in the west"). [45]

Heather Dewey-Hagborg is an information artist and biohacker who uses genomic DNA left behind by people as a starting point for creating lifelike, computer-generated, 3-D portraits. [46] [47]

Criticism and concerns

Biohacking experiences many of the same criticisms as synthetic biology and genetic engineering already receive, plus other concerns relating to the distributed and non-institutional nature of the work, involving potential hazards with lack of oversight by professionals or governments. Concerns about biohackers creating pathogens in unmonitored garage laboratories led the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to begin sending its representatives to DIYbio conferences in 2009. [7] The arrest and prosecution of some members for their work with harmless microbes, such as artivist Steve Kurtz, has been denounced as political repression by critics who argue the U.S. government has used post-9/11 anti-terrorism powers to intimidate artists and others who use their art to criticize society. [48]

Existing regulations are not specific to this field, so that the possibility of pathogenic organisms being created and released unintentionally or intentionally by biohackers has become a matter of concern, for example, in the spirit of the re-creation of the 1917 flu virus by Armed Forces Institute of Pathology researchers in 2005. [49] In the US the FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction Directorate has worked with the American Association for the Advancement of Science's National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity to convene a series of meetings to discuss biosecurity, which have included discussions of amateur biologists and ways to manage the risks to society it poses. [50] [51] : 8.16  At the National Institutes of Health, National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity [52] leads efforts to educate the public on "dual use research of concern", for example with websites like "Science Safety Security". [53] In 2011, DIYbio organized conferences to attempt to create codes of ethics for biohackers. [54]

A 2007 ETC Group report warns that the danger of this development is not just bioterror, but "bio-error". [55]

While detractors argue that do-it-yourself biologists need some sort of supervision, enthusiasts argue that uniform supervision is impossible and the best way to prevent accidents or malevolence is to encourage a culture of transparency, where, in essence, do-it-yourself biologists would be peer reviewed by other biohackers. [56] DIYbio argues that fear of potential hazards should be met with increased research and education rather than closing the door on the profound positive impacts that distributed biological technology will have on human health, the environment, and the standard of living around the world. [57] Due to the lack of precedent regarding such a business model, the DIYbio founders see this as an opportunity to be innovators in regulatory and safety policy. [8]

Groups and organizations

See also

Related Research Articles

Molecular biology is a branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including biomolecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

Body hacking is the application of the hacker ethic in pursuit of enhancement or change to the body's functions through technological means, such as do-it-yourself cybernetic devices or by introducing biochemicals.

BioArt is an art practice where artists work with biology, live tissues, bacteria, living organisms, and life processes. Using scientific processes and practices such as biology and life science practices, microscopy, and biotechnology the artworks are produced in laboratories, galleries, or artists' studios. The scope of BioArt is a range considered by some artists to be strictly limited to "living forms", while other artists include art that uses the imagery of contemporary medicine and biological research, or require that it address a controversy or blind spot posed by the very character of the life sciences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DIYbio (organization)</span> Organization

DIYbio is an informal umbrella organization for individuals and local groups active in do-it-yourself biology, encompassing both a website and an email list. It serves as a network of individuals from around the globe that aims to help make biology a worthwhile pursuit for citizen scientists, biohackers, amateur biologists, and do-it-yourself biological engineers who value openness and safety. It was founded by Jason Bobe and Mackenzie Cowell in 2008.

Boston Open Science Laboratory (BOSLab) is a labspace in Somerville, Massachusetts, which is part of the DIYbio and biohacking movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genspace</span>

Genspace is a non-profit organization and a community biology laboratory located in Brooklyn, New York. Stemming from the hacking, biohacking, and DIYbio movements, Genspace has focused on supporting citizen science and public access to biotechnology. Genspace opened the first community biology lab in 2010 and a Biosafety Level One laboratory in December of that year. Since its opening, Genspace has supported projects, events, courses, art, and general community resources concerning biology, biotechnology, synthetic biology, genetic engineering, citizen science, open source software, open source hardware, and more.

Ryan Bethencourt is an American scientist, entrepreneur, and biohacker best known for his work as co-founder and CEO of Wild Earth, Partner at Babel Ventures and cofounder and former Program Director at IndieBio, a biology accelerator and early stage seed fund. Bethencourt was head of life sciences at the XPRIZE foundation, a co-founder and CEO of Berkeley Biolabs, a biotech accelerator, and Halpin Neurosciences, an ALS therapeutics-focused biotech company. Bethencourt co-founded Counter Culture Labs, a citizen science nonprofit, and Sudo Room, a hacker space based in downtown Oakland, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dave Asprey</span> American entrepreneur and author

Dave Asprey is an American entrepreneur, author and advocate of a low-carbohydrate high-fat diet known as the Bulletproof diet which has been criticized by dietitians for making pseudoscientific claims. He founded Bulletproof 360, Inc. in 2013, and in 2017, founded Bulletproof Nutrition Inc. Men's Health described Asprey as a "lifestyle guru".

Biohacking, biohacker, or biohack may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jo Zayner</span> American biohacker, artist, and scientist (born 1981)

Jo Zayner is a biohacker, artist, and scientist best known for their self-experimentation and work making hands-on genetic engineering accessible to a lay audience, including CRISPR.

The Baltimore Underground Science Space (BUGSS) is a non-profit synthetic biology and biotechnology makerspace laboratory for science enthusiasts, hobbyists, and professionals to practice, share and learn about the biological sciences. BUGSS is closely aligned with do-it-yourself biology and the Maryland science community generally, and offers courses and lectures in addition to community lab space. It was founded by Dr. Tom Burkett in 2012. It is located in the Highlandtown neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland.

BioCurious is a community biology laboratory and nonprofit organization located in Sunnyvale, California, co-founded by Eri Gentry, Kristina Hathaway, Josh Perfetto, Raymond McCauley, Joseph Jackson, and Tito Jankowski. With the help of Kickstarter and 239 backers they raised $35,319. BioCurious is a complete working laboratory and technical library for entrepreneurs to access equipment, materials, and co-working space, and a meeting place for citizen scientists, hobbyists, activists, and students. Scientific American magazine has described BioCurious as "one of country’s premier community biotechnology labs [...]".

The Victoria Makerspace is a biology community lab, founded by Derek Jacoby and Thomas Gray in 2010, and was one of the first do-it-yourself biology labs, following the establishment of BioCurious and Genspace in the US. The lab has taken part in the FBI DIY biology summit in Walnut Creek, California in 2012, the first Canadian DIY Biology Summit in 2016, and the iGEM synthetic biology competition in 2014 with a project on preventing dental decay.

Ellen D. Jorgensen is a New York-based molecular biologist leading the do-it-yourself biology movement. She works to increase scientific literacy in the general population, particularly in the fields of molecular and synthetic biology. She is a co-founder of both Biotech Without Borders and Genspace. In 2017, Ellen Jorgensen was named one of the Most Creative Leaders in Business by Fast Company.

Aaron James Traywick was an American businessman and life extension activist in the transhumanism and biohacking communities. He sought to develop gene therapies to make inexpensive treatments available for incurable conditions such as AIDS and the herpes simplex virus. His lack of any medical training and his unconventional methods—such as broadcasting an associate injecting himself with an "untested experimental gene therapy", then later doing the same to himself in an onstage public demonstration—drew widespread criticism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Four Thieves Vinegar Collective</span> Anarchist biohacking group

The Four Thieves Vinegar Collective is an anarchist biohacking group founded in 2015 by Michael Laufer. They have published instructions for the "EpiPencil", an epinephrine autoinjector, and the "Apothecary MicroLab", a do-it-yourself (DIY) device intended to make a variety of medications, most notably pyrimethamine (Daraprim). They have been criticized by the medical community for causing potential harm to patients with the DIY instructions, but Laufer claims to defend people's right to attempt their own medical treatment.

The Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science is a non-profit organization that facilitates collaborative, open source environmental research in a model known as Community Science. It supports communities facing environmental justice issues in a do it yourself approach to environmental monitoring and advocacy. Public Lab grew out of a grassroots effort to take aerial photographs of the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Since then, they have launched a range of projects, including an open source spectrometer, multi-spectral camera, and low-cost microscope.

Anastasia Synn is a Canadian sideshow stunt performer and magician, as well as a transhumanist and biohacker. She is known for her cyborg rights activism. She was married to magician and comedian the Amazing Johnathan, whom she also managed, until his death on February 22, 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open Insulin Project</span> Project to develop an open source protocol for producing insulin

The Open Insulin Project is a community of researchers and advocates working to develop an open-source protocol for producing insulin that is affordable, has transparent pricing, and is community-owned.

<i>Biohackers</i> German television series

Biohackers is a German techno-thriller television series created by Christian Ditter that premiered on Netflix on 20 August 2020. A week after its release, the series was renewed for a second season, which was released on 9 July 2021.

References

  1. ↑ Hicks, Jennifer (2014-03-15). "The Biohacking Hobbyist". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
  2. ↑ Michels, Spencer (2014-09-23). "What is biohacking and why should we care?". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
  3. ↑ Katz, Sylvan (6 January 1990). "Forum: Roses are black, violets are green – The emergence of amateur genetic engineers". New Scientist. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
  4. ↑ Katz, J. S. (1990). "That which is not forbidden is Mandatory". Education. 4 (1). ISSN   0955-6621.
  5. ↑ Schrage, Michael (1988-01-31). "Playing God in your basement". The Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 2015-10-25.
  6. ↑ Carlson, Rob (May 2005). "Splice It Yourself: Who needs a geneticist? Build your own lab". Wired.
  7. 1 2 Ledford, Heidi (2010). "Garage : Life hackers". Nature. 467 (7316): 650–2. doi: 10.1038/467650a . PMID   20930820.
  8. 1 2 "PBS News Hour". YouTube . 31 Dec 2008. Archived from the original on 2021-12-20.
  9. ↑ Mosher, Dave (2010-12-16). "DIY Biotech Hacker Space Opens in NYC". Wired. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
  10. ↑ "BioCurious Officially Opens — Test DNA, Build Equipment, Find a Co-founder and More…". Make Magazine. 2011-10-14. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
  11. ↑ Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (18 February 2020). Collaborative Society. MIT Press. ISBN   978-0-262-35645-9.
  12. ↑ "Biohack the Planet Conference". Biohack the Planet. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
  13. ↑ "Rob Carlson on synthetic biology". The Economist. Archived from the original on 2011-10-09.
  14. ↑ Wu, Chen-Yi; Hu, Hsiao-Yun; Chow, Lok-Hi; et al. (22 June 2015). "The Effects of Anti-Dementia and Nootropic Treatments on the Mortality of Patients with Dementia: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0130993. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1030993W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130993 . PMC   4476616 . PMID   26098910.
  15. ↑ Singh, Honey (2 February 2020). "How to Biohack Your Metabolism?". Do BioHacking.
  16. ↑ Heindel, Jerrold J.; Blumberg, Bruce; Cave, Mathew; et al. (March 2017). "Metabolism disrupting chemicals and metabolic disorders". Reproductive Toxicology. 68: 3–33. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.10.001. PMC   5365353 . PMID   27760374.
  17. ↑ Prigent, Sylvain; Frioux, Clémence; Dittami, Simon M.; Thiele, Sven; Larhlimi, Abdelhalim; Collet, Guillaume; Gutknecht, Fabien; Got, Jeanne; Eveillard, Damien; Bourdon, Jérémie; Plewniak, Frédéric; Tonon, Thierry; Siegel, Anne (27 January 2017). "Meneco, a Topology-Based Gap-Filling Tool Applicable to Degraded Genome-Wide Metabolic Networks". PLOS Computational Biology. 13 (1): e1005276. Bibcode:2017PLSCB..13E5276P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005276 . PMC   5302834 . PMID   28129330.
  18. ↑ Anderson, Jason R.; Hagerdorn, Payton L.; Gunstad, John; Spitznagel, Mary Beth (July 2018). "Using coffee to compensate for poor sleep: Impact on vigilance and implications for workplace performance". Applied Ergonomics. 70: 142–147. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2018.02.026. PMID   29866304. S2CID   46929880.
  19. ↑ Pearce, Joshua M. (14 September 2012). "Building Research Equipment with Free, Open-Source Hardware". Science. 337 (6100): 1303–1304. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1303P. doi:10.1126/science.1228183. PMID   22984059. S2CID   44722829.
  20. ↑ "BUGSS Membership". BUGSS. Archived from the original on 2017-08-25. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  21. ↑ "Biocurious Membership". Biocurious. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  22. ↑ "Counter Culture Labs Membership". Counter Culture Labs. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  23. ↑ "DremelFuge – A One-Piece Centrifuge for Rotary Tools". Thingiverse. 2009-12-23. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  24. ↑ Jankowski, Tito (2011-07-06). "DNA is now DIY: OpenPCR ships worldwide". Make.
  25. ↑ "Pocket PCR for pennies". LavaAmp. Archived from the original on 2015-11-06. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
  26. ↑ "Coffee Cup – PCR Thermocycler costing under 350$". Instructables. 2009-06-13. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  27. ↑ "OpenDrop". OpenDrop. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  28. ↑ "DIY NanoDrop". DIY NanoDrop. Hackteria. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  29. ↑ Landoni, Boris (11 July 2014). "Interview to Open Trons | Open Electronics". Open Source Electronics. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
  30. ↑ "Open Cell is hosting monthly biohackathons to develop equipment, software and products to make better and more affordable biolaboratories". OpenCell.bio. OpenCell. Retrieved 2019-08-17.
  31. ↑ Todd Kuiken (2016-03-09). "Governance: Learn from DIY biologists". Nature Magazine. 531 (7593): 167–168. Bibcode:2016Natur.531..167K. doi: 10.1038/531167a . PMID   26961642.
  32. ↑ Yin, Steph (2016-05-03). "Is DIY Kitchen CRISPR A Class Issue?". Popular Science. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
  33. ↑ Hicks, Jennifer (2014-03-15). "The Biohacking Hobbyist". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
  34. ↑ "Biocurious Meetup". Meetup. 2016-06-25. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  35. ↑ Krieger, Lisa M. (2016-01-11). "Bay Area biologist's gene-editing kit lets do-it-yourselfers play God at the kitchen table". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  36. ↑ Ossola, Alexandra (2015-11-18). "These Biohackers Are Creating Open-Source Insulin". Popular Science. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
  37. ↑ Duhaime-Ross, Arielle (2016-05-04). "A Bitter Pill". The Verge.
  38. ↑ Linebaugh, Kate (2016-05-09). "Tech-savvy Families use homebuilt diabetes device". Wall Street Journal.
  39. ↑ "LoopDocs". loopkit.github.io. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
  40. ↑ "Welcome to the AndroidAPS documentation — AndroidAPS 3.0 documentation". androidaps.readthedocs.io. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
  41. ↑ Neifer, Anna (2015-11-09). "Biohackers are implanting LEDs under their skin". Motherboard.
  42. ↑ Dvorsky, George (2016-03-27). "This Biohacker Used Eyedrops To Give Himself Temporary Night Vision". Gizmodo.
  43. ↑ Thaddeus-Johns, Josie (2017-01-06). "Meet the first humans to sense where north is". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-06-02.
  44. ↑ Dickey, Christopher (April 2001). "I Love My Glow Bunny".{{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  45. ↑ "Critical Art Ensemble". critical-art.net. Archived from the original on 2015-11-13. Retrieved 2015-11-20.
  46. ↑ Jenkins, Mark (2013-09-18). "A 'Cyber' exhibit as timely as the news". Washington Post. p. E18.
  47. ↑ Krulwich, Robert (2013-06-28). "Artist plays detective: Can I reconstruct a face from a piece of hair?". NPR. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
  48. ↑ The Associated Press (October 29, 2007). "Scientist pleads guilty to mailing bacteria for 'bio-art'". First Amendment Center. Archived from the original on 2009-02-10.
  49. ↑ "The 1918 flu virus is resurrected". Nature. 437 (7060): 794–5. October 2005. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..794.. doi:10.1038/437794a. PMC   7095040 . PMID   16208326.
  50. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (March 5, 2012). "Amateurs Are New Fear in Creating Mutant Virus". The New York Times.
  51. ↑ Prepared by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in conjunction with the Association of American Universities, Association of Public and Land-grant Universities, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation Bridging Science and Security for Biological Research: A Discussion about Dual Use Review and Oversight at Research Institutions Report of a Meeting September 13–14, 2012 Archived 2012-10-28 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ↑ NSABB Official Website
  53. ↑ Science Safety Security official website
  54. ↑ "The role of codes of conduct in the amateur biology community" . Retrieved 4 February 2014.
  55. ↑ ETC Group (January 2007). "Extreme Genetic Engineering: An Introduction to Synthetic Biology" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-09-28.
  56. ↑ Boustead, Greg (December 11, 2008). "The Biohacking Hobbyist". Seed Magazine. Archived from the original on 2019-10-06.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  57. ↑ "DIYbio/FAQ".
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.