Dog breeding

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A litter of French Bulldog puppies and their mother French Bulldog with puppies.jpg
A litter of French Bulldog puppies and their mother

Dog breeding is the practice of mating selected dogs with the intention of maintaining or producing specific qualities and characteristics. When dogs reproduce without such human intervention, their offspring's characteristics are determined by natural selection, while "dog breeding" refers specifically to the artificial selection of dogs, in which dogs are intentionally bred by their owners. [1] Breeding relies on the science of genetics, hence a breeder who is knowledgeable on canine genetics, health, and the intended purpose of the dogs attempts to breed suitable dogs. [2]

Contents

Terminology

The female parent of puppies is referred to as the dam and the male parent is referred to as the sire. A litter consists of the puppies born from the same pregnancy. A whelp is a newborn puppy and giving birth to dogs is called whelping. Dogs commonly give birth in a whelping box , a simple box or pen provided to the dam to help shelter and contain the puppies.

A person who intentionally mates dogs to produce puppies is referred to as a dog breeder. Line breeding is the planned breeding of dogs with their relatives. This is done to strengthen the appearance of specific desired traits in offspring. Line breeding is differentiated from inbreeding by excluding pairings between parents and offspring, and between full siblings. Outcrossing is the planned breeding between two unrelated dogs, used to increase genetic diversity in a breed and decrease genetic issues or abnormalities inherited from line breeding or inbreeding.

Estrous cycle

Dogs reach puberty between 6 and 24 months old, at which age female dogs will start having an estrous cycle. There are four stages of estrous: proestrus, estrus, diestrus, and anestrus. A dog in estrus, also known as being "in heat", can become pregnant during this 3- to 21-day period. [3]

Breeding and gestation

Gestation in a dog is 63 days in length, if measured from the day of ovulation. Since it is difficult to determine the exact date of ovulation, errors are often made in calculating gestation period. Canine sperm can live for 10 to 11 days in the fallopian tubes so if a female is bred 10 days before the oocytes (ovum) can be fertilized, she will appear to have a gestation length of 70 days. If she is bred on the day the oocytes can be fertilized, her gestation length will appear to be 60 days long.

History

Humans have maintained populations of useful animals around their places of habitat since pre-historic times. [4] Over these millennia, domesticated dogs have developed into distinct types, or groups, such as livestock guardian dogs, hunting dogs, and sighthounds. To maintain these distinctions, humans have intentionally mated dogs with certain characteristics to encourage those characteristics in the offspring. Through this process, hundreds of dog breeds have been developed. Artificial selection in dog breeding has influenced behavior, shape, and size of dogs. [5]

It is believed that when human civilization moved towards agrarian societies, dogs were selectively bred for smaller size and more docile behavior. [6] These traits made it more comfortable for humans and dogs to live together. It has been seen that these traits can even prompt an adult female wolf to act more defensively of dog puppies than of wolf puppies. [7] The example of canine neoteny goes even further, in that the various dog breeds are differently neotenized according to the type of behavior that was selected. [8] Other researchers believe that because this comparison is based on the grey wolf, which might not be the ancestor of the dog, that this comparison is invalid. [9] Further research indicates that the concept of neoteny as a means of distinguishing dogs from wolves is baseless. [10]

With the development of breed clubs and kennel clubs during the mid-19th century, dog breeding became more rigorous and many breeds were developed during this time. [6] Dog breeding became more systematic to preserve unique mutations such as shortened legs, a shortened face, new fur colors and textures. [6] The increased popularity of dog shows that judged a dog's look more than its working ability led to different goals when breeding. [11] Dogs bred for show rather than performance tended to develop more exaggerated and extreme features to meet breed standards. [11] One example of this change in breeding goals is the pronounced sloped back in the modern German Shepherd breed, compared to the straight back of working pedigrees. The Shar Pei is an example of how differing breed standards can influence the direction breeders take a dog and which traits are exaggerated. The Western Shar Pei has been bred to have a meatier mouth and more wrinkly skin than the traditional Chinese Shar Pei it originated from.

Initially, the ownership of working and purebred dogs, was a privilege of the wealthy. Today many people can afford to buy a dog. There are various reasons for people to breed dogs. Some people may have personal reasons, such as wanting to own or give away puppies, and are not interested in pedigree. Breeders may also breed dogs for profit, for show, because of an interest in a particular breed, or to correct some issue and improve the soundness of a breed. Responsible breeders take into consideration the temperament, as well as the health and appearance of the mating pair before breeding.

Breeders of purebred dogs can register the birth of a litter of puppies to a dog registry associated with a kennel club to record the parentage of the litter in stud books. Such registries maintain records of dogs’ lineage and are usually affiliated with kennel clubs, such as the AKC (American Kennel Club). [12] Maintaining correct data is important for purebred dog breeding. Access to records allows a breeder to analyze the pedigrees and anticipate traits and behaviors that may be passed onto offspring. Requirements for the breeding of registered purebreds vary between breeds, countries, kennel clubs and registries. Breeders have to abide by the rules of the specific organization to participate in its breed maintenance and development programs. The rules may apply to the health of the dogs, such as joint x-rays, hip certifications, and eye examinations; to working qualities, such as passing a special test or achieving at a trial; to general conformation, such as evaluation of a dog by a breed expert. However, many registries, particularly those in North America, are not policing agencies that exclude dogs of poor quality or health. Their main function is simply to register puppies born of parents which are themselves registered. [13] [14]

Criticism

The genetic diversity of modern dog breeds is lower than both modern village dogs and a 5,000-year-old genome from a dog fossil found in Newgrange, Ireland, suggesting that modern breeding practices are partly responsible for the decline. [15] During the early formative years of many breeds, breeders often crossed closely related dogs to create specific phenotypes, resulting in increased incidence of breed-specific genetic diseases. [16]

Some dogs have certain inheritable characteristics that can develop into a disability or disease. Canine hip dysplasia is one such condition. Eye abnormalities, heart conditions, and some cases of deafness have been proven to be inherited. [17] There have been extensive studies of these conditions, [18] commonly sponsored by breed clubs and dog registries, while specialized breed clubs provide information of common genetic defects for their breeds. Also, special organizations such as the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals collect data and provide it to breeders, as well as to the general public. Conditions such as hip dysplasia can impact some breeds more than others. [19]

Some registries, such as American Kennel Club, may include a record of the absence of certain genetic defects, known as a certification, in an individual dog's record. For example, the German Shepherd Dog national breed club in Germany recognizes that hip dysplasia is a genetic defect for dogs of this breed. Accordingly, it requires all dogs to pass evaluation for absence of hip dysplasia to register their progeny, and records the results in individual dog's pedigrees.

There are BBC documentaries titled "Pedigree Dogs Exposed" and "Pedigree Dogs Exposed – Three Years On" that claim health problems in dogs from inbreeding. Some examples are problems with breathing in the Pug breed and Pekingese breed, spinal problems in the Dachshund breed, and Syringomyelia in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel breed.

Some scientific researchers argue that advances in artificial reproduction technology for the purposes of dog breeding can be helpful, but also have "detrimental impacts" when overused, overriding natural selection principles. These scientists call for a deeper understanding of natural selection, leading to a more naturalistic approach in dog breeding. [20] It was concluded that "findings imply that when selective breeding was done by humans, it squashed the snouts of certain dog breeds, it also morphed their brains." [21]

Animal rights groups such as the International Society for Animal Rights and PETA believe that dog breeding, even by licensed responsible breeders, contributes to the pet overpopulation problem. [22]

Genetic diversity

Domestic dogs are phenotypically diverse mammals shown by differences in morphology and behavior across different breeds. [23] Factors that contribute to this diversity are reproductive isolation, bottlenecks, and genetic drift. Data collected through owner reports suggests that genetic diversity has an effect on dogs' lifespan.

Inbreeding depression

Inbreeding depression is the reduced survival and fertility of offspring of related individuals. [24] A study of 42,855 dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog breed</span> Group of closely related and visibly similar domestic dogs

A dog breed is a particular type of dog that was purposefully bred by humans to perform specific tasks, such as herding, hunting, and guarding. Dogs are the most variable mammal on Earth, with artificial selection producing upward of 360 globally recognized breeds. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, body shape, and coat colour. However, there is only one species of dog. Their behavioral traits include guarding, herding, and hunting, and personality traits such as hyper-social behavior, boldness, and aggression. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years. As a result of their adaptability to many environments and breedability for human needs, today dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American Kennel Club</span> American purebreed dog registry

The American Kennel Club (AKC) is a registry of purebred dog pedigrees in the United States. In addition to maintaining its pedigree registry, this kennel club also promotes and sanctions events for purebred dogs, including the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, an annual event which predates the official forming of the AKC, the National Dog Show and the AKC National Championship. The AKC is a non-member partner with the Fédération Cynologique Internationale. The AKC recognizes 200 dog breeds, as of 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhodesian Ridgeback</span> Dog breed

The Rhodesian Ridgeback is a large dog breed originally bred in Southern Africa. The original breed standard was drafted by F.R. Barnes, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, in 1922, and approved by the South African Kennel Union in 1927. Its forebears can be traced to the semi-domesticated ridged hunting and guardian dogs of the Khoikhoi. These were interbred with European dogs by the early colonists of the Cape Colony for assisting in the hunting of lions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boxer (dog breed)</span> Dog breed

The Boxer is a medium to large, short-haired dog breed of mastiff-type, developed in Germany. The coat is smooth and tight-fitting; colors are fawn, brindled, or white, with or without white markings. Boxers are brachycephalic, have a square muzzle, mandibular prognathism, very strong jaws, and a powerful bite ideal for hanging on to large prey. The Boxer was bred from the Old English Bulldog and the now extinct Bullenbeisser, which became extinct by crossbreeding rather than by a decadence of the breed. The Boxer is a member of both The Kennel Club and American Kennel Club (AKC) Working Group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saarloos wolfdog</span> Dog breed

The Saarlooswolfdog is a wolfdog breed originating from the Netherlands by the crossing of a German Shepherd with a Siberian grey wolf in 1935. The offspring were then further crossed with German Shepherds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labradoodle</span> Crossbreed dog

A labradoodle is a crossbreed dog created by crossing a Labrador Retriever and a Standard or Miniature Poodle. Labradoodles were intended to be a good choice for people with canine dander allergies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongrel</span> Dog with mixed breeds

A mongrel, mutt, or mixed-breed dog is a dog that does not belong to one officially recognized breed, including those that result from intentional breeding. Although the term mixed-breed dog is sometimes preferred, many mongrels have no known purebred ancestors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kennel club</span> Organization working with dog breeding

A kennel club is an organization for canine affairs that concerns itself with the breeding, showing and promotion of more than one breed of dog. Kennel clubs became popular in the mid 19th century. All-encompassing kennel clubs are also referred to as 'all-breed clubs', although "all" means only those breeds that they have decided to recognize, and "breed" means purebred dogs, not including dog hybrids and crossbreeds or mixed-breed dogs. A club that handles only one breed is known as a breed club.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog crossbreed</span> Dog type

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Purebreds are "cultivated varieties" of an animal species achieved through the process of selective breeding. When the lineage of a purebred animal is recorded, that animal is said to be "pedigreed". Purebreds breed true-to-type which means the progeny of like-to-like purebred parents will carry the same phenotype, or observable characteristics of the parents. A group of purebreds is called a pure-breeding line or strain.

A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. Crossbreeding, sometimes called "designer crossbreeding", is the process of breeding such an organism. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of extinction of a given breed of organism.

A breed registry, also known as a herdbook, studbook or register, in animal husbandry, the hobby of animal fancy, is an official list of animals within a specific breed whose parents are known. Animals are usually registered by their breeders while they are young. The terms studbook and register are also used to refer to lists of male animals "standing at stud", that is, those animals actively breeding, as opposed to every known specimen of that breed. Such registries usually issue certificates for each recorded animal, called a pedigree, pedigreed animal documentation, or most commonly, an animal's "papers". Registration papers may consist of a simple certificate or a listing of ancestors in the animal's background, sometimes with a chart showing the lineage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olde English Bulldogge</span> Dog breed

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dobermann</span> Black and tan dog breed from Germany

The Dobermann is a German breed of medium-large domestic dog of pinscher type. It was originally bred in Thuringia in about 1890 by Louis Dobermann, a tax collector. It has a long muzzle and – ideally – an even and graceful gait. The ears were traditionally cropped and the tail docked, practices which are now illegal in many countries.

Canine reproduction is the process of sexual reproduction in domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes and other canine species.

<i>Pedigree Dogs Exposed</i> 2008 documentary by BBC One

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The Kennel Club of India is a registry of purebred dogs in India. As well as maintaining a registry of pedigrees, the club promotes and sanctions events for purebred dogs, including annual dog shows and specialty shows. The Kennel Club of India is a member of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Popular sire effect</span>

The popular sire effect occurs when an animal with desirable attributes is bred repeatedly. In dog breeding, a male dog that wins respected competitions becomes highly sought after, as breeders believe the sire possesses the genes necessary to produce champions. However, the popular sire effect is not just down to wanting to produce a champion. For example, in Staffordshire Bull Terriers there are several popular sires who are used by breeders to produce specific colours that are not favoured in the show ring. The popular sire is often bred extensively with many females. This can cause undetected, undesirable genetic traits in the stud to spread rapidly within the gene pool. It can also reduce genetic diversity by the exclusion of other males.

Purebred breeders are dog breeders that intentionally breed purebred dogs specifically to continue the lineage of certain breed characteristics in dogs by mating selected canines.

Pedigree Dogs Exposed: Three Years On is a 2012 follow-up to the 2008 BBC One documentary, Pedigree Dogs Exposed (PDE). While this second programme looks at the positive changes made since the original film, it focuses on investigating areas of continuing concern. The programme concluded that it was time to call a halt to suffering created by breeders. It states that as long as the Kennel Club (KC) tolerated human whim leading to dogs that cannot run, breathe, or see freely, dogs would continue to suffer, but featured that, in fact, the Kennel Club would continue in the vein, suggesting that the organisation has a conflict of interest in juggling its commitments to breeders and to dogs – when the interest of dogs does not match up with that of breeders, the dogs suffer. It also called on dog fanciers to stop being consumers of 'freak-show" appearance, the driving factor in developing dogs to physical extremes. KC refused to participate in the production. The programme aired on 27 February 2012 in the United Kingdom.

References

  1. ↑ Seranne, Ann (1980). The Joy of Breeding Your Own Show Dog. New York, N.Y: Howell Book House. ISBN   978-0-87605-413-0.
  2. ↑ "Sociodemograhic Characteristics of Dog Breeders in Some Selected States in Southwestern Nigeria". Nigerian Veterinary Journal.
  3. ↑ Eilts, Bruce E (25 September 2012). "The Normal Canine Estrous Cycle". therio.vetmed.lsu.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-28.
  4. ↑ Darwin, Charles (2004). The Variation of Animals And Plants Under Domestication. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN   978-1-4191-8660-8.
  5. ↑ Akey, Joshua M.; Ruhe, Alison L.; Akey, Dayna T.; Wong, Aaron K.; Connelly, Caitlin F.; Madeoy, Jennifer; Nicholas, Thomas J.; Neffb, Mark W. (January 19, 2010). "Tracking footprints of artificial selection in the dog genome". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107 (3): 1160–5. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.1160A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909918107 . PMC   2824266 . PMID   20080661.
  6. 1 2 3 Wayne, Robert K.; vonHoldt, Bridgett M. (2012-02-01). "Evolutionary genomics of dog domestication". Mammalian Genome. 23 (1–2): 3–18. doi:10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7. ISSN   0938-8990. PMID   22270221. S2CID   16003335.
  7. ↑ Frank H; Frank MG (1982). "On the effects of domestication on canine social development and behavior" (PDF). Applied Animal Ethology. 8 (6): 507–525. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(82)90215-2. hdl: 2027.42/23918 .
  8. ↑ Gould, Stephen Jay (1993). Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 934. ISBN   978-0-393-31139-6.
  9. ↑ Koler-Matznick, Janice (2002). "The origin of the dog revisited". Anthrozoös. 15 (2): 98–118. doi:10.2752/089279302786992595. S2CID   14850835.
  10. ↑ Drake, Abby Grace; Coquerelle, Michael; Colombeau, Guillaume (2015). "3D morphometric analysis of fossil canid skulls contradicts the suggested domestication of dogs during the late Paleolithic". Scientific Reports. 5: 8299. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8299D. doi:10.1038/srep08299. PMC   5389137 . PMID   25654325.
  11. 1 2 Pedersen, N.; Liu, H.; Theilen, G.; Sacks, B. (2013-06-01). "The effects of dog breed development on genetic diversity and the relative influences of performance and conformation breeding". Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics. 130 (3): 236–248. doi:10.1111/jbg.12017. ISSN   1439-0388. PMID   23679949.
  12. ↑ American Kennel club Staff (1997). The complete dog book. New York, N.Y: Howell Book House. ISBN   978-0-87605-047-7.
  13. ↑ "Designer Disaster! Is Dog Breeding Contributing to More Unhealthy and Homeless Dogs?". Archived from the original on 2013-12-12.
  14. ↑ "The Truth About Purebred Dogs Will Absolutely Disgust You". Viralnova.com. 2013-12-07. Archived from the original on 2013-12-20. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  15. ↑ Frantz, Laurent A. F.; Bradley, Daniel G.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2020). "Animal domestication in the era of ancient genomics" (PDF). Nature Reviews Genetics. 21 (8): 449–460. doi:10.1038/s41576-020-0225-0. PMID   32265525. S2CID   214809393.
  16. ↑ Ostrander, Elaine A.; Wang, Guo-Dong; Larson, Greger; Vonholdt, Bridgett M.; Davis, Brian W.; Jagannathan, Vidyha; Hitte, Christophe; Wayne, Robert K.; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2019). "Dog10K: An international sequencing effort to advance studies of canine domestication, phenotypes, and health". National Science Review. 6 (4): 810–824. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwz049. PMC   6776107 . PMID   31598383.
  17. ↑ George A. Padgett (1998). Control of Canine Genetic Diseases (Howell Reference Books). New York, N.Y: Howell Book House. ISBN   978-0-87605-004-0.
  18. ↑ "Diseases by Breed". Research.vet.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  19. ↑ "Hip Dysplasia by Breed". Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. 2010. Archived from the original on 19 October 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  20. ↑ Vandeloo, John (2009). "Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 4, Issue 6, November–December 2009, Pages 245 Cover image The importance of intergrating[sic] natural selection within a detector dog selective breeding model". Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research. 4 (6).
  21. ↑ Jabr, Ferris. "Changing Minds: Has Selective Breeding Restructured Some Dog Brains?" Scientific American Global RSS. N.p., 13 Aug. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.
  22. ↑ "A Prime Source of Canine Overpopulation: The American Kennel Club". ISAR online. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  23. ↑ Kraus, Cornelia; Snyder-Mackler, Noah; Promislow, Daniel E. L. (2023-04-01). "How size and genetic diversity shape lifespan across breeds of purebred dogs". GeroScience. 45 (2): 627–643. doi:10.1007/s11357-022-00653-w. ISSN   2509-2723. PMC   9886701 . PMID   36066765.
  24. ↑ Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression". Nat. Rev. Genet. 10 (11): 783–96. doi:10.1038/nrg2664. PMID   19834483. S2CID   771357.
  25. ↑ Gresky C, Hamann H, Distl O (2005). "[Influence of inbreeding on litter size and the proportion of stillborn puppies in dachshunds]". Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. (in German). 118 (3–4): 134–9. PMID   15803761.

[1]


  1. ↑ Kraus, Cornelia; Snyder-Mackler, Noah; Promislow, Daniel E. L. (2023-04-01). "How size and genetic diversity shape lifespan across breeds of purebred dogs". GeroScience. 45 (2): 627–643. doi:10.1007/s11357-022-00653-w. ISSN   2509-2723. PMC   9886701 . PMID   36066765.
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