Entoloma

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Entoloma
2005-09-25 Entoloma sinuatum cropped.jpg
Entoloma sinuatum
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Entolomataceae
Genus: Entoloma
(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Type species
Entoloma sinuatum
(Bull.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Species

1948 species [1]

Synonyms
List
  • Agaricus trib. EntolomaFr. (1838)
  • AlboleptoniaLargent & R.G.Benedict (1970)
  • Arenicola Velen. (1947)
  • Calliderma(Romagn.) Largent (1994)
  • Claudopus Gillet (1876)
  • Clitopiloides(Romagn.) Largent (1994)
  • Eccilia(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
  • Fibropilus (Noordel.) Largent (1994)
  • Inocephalus (Noordel.) P.D.Orton (1991)
  • Leptonia (Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
  • Leptoniella Earle (1909)
  • Nigropogon Coker & Couch (1928)
  • Nolanea (Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
  • Omphaliopsis (Noordel.) P.D.Orton (1991)
  • ParaecciliaLargent (1994)
  • Paraleptonia(Romagn. ex Noordel.) P.D.Orton (1991)
  • PouzarellaMazzer (1976)
  • Richoniella Costantin & L.M.Dufour (1900)
  • RhodocybellaT.J.Baroni & R.H.Petersen (1987)
  • Rhodogaster E.Horak (1964)
  • Rhodophyllus Quél. (1886) (nom. illegit.)
  • Trichopilus(Romagn.) P.D.Orton (1991)

Entoloma is a genus of fungi in the order Agaricales. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are typically agaricoid (gilled mushrooms), though a minority are gasteroid. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. The genus is large, with almost 2000 species worldwide. Most species are saprotrophic, but some are ectomycorrhizal, and a few are parasitic on other fungi. The type, Entoloma sinuatum , is one of several Entoloma species that are poisonous, typically causing mild to severe gastrointestinal illness.

Contents

Taxonomy

History

In 1838 the Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries classified all pink-spored, gilled fungi into "tribes" or "subtribes", placing those with a Tricholoma -like shape and gills attached to the stem into tribe Entoloma. The small subtribe Leptonia had convex fleshy membranaceous caps, the subtribe Nolanea were slender fungi with bell-shaped caps and hollow stems, and the subtribe Eccilia had umbilicate caps and adnate gills. [2] In 1871 German mycologist Paul Kummer raised these tribes and subtribes to genera. [3] Additional genera were added by subsequent authors. [4] [5] [6] Following this classification system, Entoloma has a restricted meaning and has sometimes been referred to as Entoloma sensu stricto. [6]

In 1886 French mycologist Lucien Quélet united all the fungi with pinkish-red adnate or sinuate gills and angular spores into a new genus Rhodophyllus (meaning "pink gill"). [7] Because his new genus included the earlier name Entoloma, Rhodophyllus is illegitimate, as noted by Donk, [8] and Entoloma was subsequently adopted to cover all the pink-spored agarics with angular spores. [9] Following this classification system, Entoloma has a broad meaning and has sometimes been referred to as Entoloma sensu lato . [4] [9] The synonyms listed here are applicable to Entoloma sensu lato.

These two classification systems continue to co-exist, with those taxonomists favouring a broad generic concept following Quélet, and the others a narrow generic concept following Kummer.

Current status

Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has shown that Entolomasensu lato is monophyletic (a natural grouping), whereas Entolomasensu stricto, as previously defined, is paraphyletic (an artificial grouping). The other genera (Leptonia, Nolanea, etc., as previously defined) are equally artificial. [10]

Accordingly, Entoloma is now broadly applied by most mycologists, pending further research. Some of the component genera are, however, currently being redefined by DNA sequencing. Thus Nolanea , for example, has been redefined (by excluding some species and adding others) as a monophyletic grouping within Entoloma sensu lato and treated either as a subgenus [11] or as a separate genus. [12] A basal group of species has also been moved to the genus Entocybe based on DNA research. [13]

Etymology

The name Entoloma is derived from the Greek entos (ἐντός) meaning inner and lóma (λῶμα) meaning fringe from the in-rolled margin. [14]

Description

Angular (polyhedral) basidiospores of Entoloma chloropolium Entoloma chloropolium 699336.jpg
Angular (polyhedral) basidiospores of Entoloma chloropolium

Basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are typically agaricoid (mushroom-shaped with gills), occasionally secotioid or gasteroid (truffle-like). Agaricoid species are variously large and thick-set to small and delicate, but all have lamellae (gills) that are attached to the stem (not free) and become pinkish with age from the pink basidiospores. The stipe (stem) lacks an annulus (ring). A few species are pleurotoid with a small lateral stem. Secotioid and gasteroid species (previously referred to the genera Richoniella and Rhodogaster) have irregularly globose fruit bodies, brownish with a distinct stipe in secotioid species (such as the European Entoloma calongei ) or whitish without a stipe in truffle-like species (such as Entoloma gasteromycetoides described from New Zealand). All are internally pinkish (from the spores) when mature. Microscopically, all Entoloma species have basidiospores that are angular in all views.

Ecology

Most species are saprotrophic, growing on decaying plant material or (less commonly) on dead wood. A few species are ectomycorrhizal. Entoloma sinuatum , for example, has been shown to form an association with willows ( Salix species) [15] and Entoloma nitidum with hornbeams ( Carpinus species). [16] A similar association of Entoloma sepium with fruit trees (Rosaceae) has, however, been shown to be root parasitism, [17] though other studies have suggested some kind of mycorrhizal partnership may exist. [18] A very few species are parasitic on other fungi, notably Entoloma abortivum a parasite of Armillaria species, [19] and Entoloma parasiticum which frequently grows on fruit bodies of Cantharellus species. [9]

Entoloma species are found in a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands and dunes, temperate and tropical forests and woodlands, peat-bogs and moors. [9]

Conservation

Some European Entoloma species are restricted to waxcap grassland (nutrient-poor grassland), a declining habitat as a result of changes in agricultural practice. This decline has led to four European Entoloma species, Entoloma bloxamii , E. griseocyaneum , E. porphyrophaeum , and E. prunuloides , being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [20]

Elsewhere, several rare and localized endemic species are assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [20] They include Entoloma chilense in Chile, E. eugenei in Japan, Korea, and the Russian Far East, and E. ravinense in Australia. Entoloma alissae in California and E. necopinatum in Chile are assessed as globally "vulnerable". [20]

Toxic and edible species

Several Entoloma species are known to be poisonous, causing gastroenteric symptoms (vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain). [21] At least one poisonous species, E. rhodopolium , has been found to contain significant quantities of the mycotoxin muscarine. [21] The English naturalist Charles David Badham mistakenly ate Entoloma sinuatum and was "so continually and fearfully purged, and suffered so much from headache and swimming of the brain, that I really thought that every moment would be my last." [22] Other species known to be poisonous include Entoloma mammosum , E. pascuum , E. strictius , and E. vernum . [21] Additional species reported as poisonous include Entoloma abortivum [23] (reported as edible, below), E. aprile , [23] E. bahusiense , [23] E. grande , [23] E. luridum , [23] E. omiense , [24] and E. quadratum . [24]

Fruit bodies of a number of Entoloma species are reported as being locally consumed, including Entoloma abortivum (reported as toxic, above) and E. clypeatum in Mexico, E. rhodopolium (reported as toxic, above) and E. clypeatum in Ukraine, and E. argyropus in Tanzania. [25] It seems probable that some of these Entoloma species were misidentified and "all should be regarded as potentially dangerous". [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secotioid</span> Type of fungi

Secotioid fungi are an intermediate growth form between mushroom-like hymenomycetes and closed bag-shaped gasteromycetes, where an evolutionary process of gasteromycetation has started but not run to completion. Secotioid fungi may or may not have opening caps, but in any case they often lack the vertical geotropic orientation of the hymenophore needed to allow the spores to be dispersed by wind, and the basidiospores are not forcibly discharged or otherwise prevented from being dispersed —note—some mycologists do not consider a species to be secotioid unless it has lost ballistospory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agaricales</span> Order of mushrooms

The Agaricales are an order of fungi in the division Basidiomycota. As originally conceived, the order contained all the agarics, but subsequent research has shown that not all agarics are closely related and some belong in other orders, such as the Russulales and Boletales. Conversely, DNA research has also shown that many non-agarics, including some of the clavarioid fungi and gasteroid fungi belong within the Agaricales. The order has 46 extant families, more than 400 genera, and over 25,000 described species, along with six extinct genera known only from the fossil record. Species in the Agaricales range from the familiar Agaricus bisporus and the deadly Amanita virosa to the coral-like Clavaria zollingeri and bracket-like Fistulina hepatica.

<i>Lepiota</i> Genus of fungi

Lepiota is a genus of gilled mushrooms in the family Agaricaceae. All Lepiota species are ground-dwelling saprotrophs with a preference for rich, calcareous soils. Basidiocarps are agaricoid with whitish spores, typically with scaly caps and a ring on the stipe. Around 400 species of Lepiota are currently recognized worldwide. Many species are poisonous, some lethally so.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russulaceae</span> Family of fungi in the order Russulales

The Russulaceae are a diverse family of fungi in the order Russulales, with roughly 1,900 known species and a worldwide distribution. They comprise the brittlegills and the milk-caps, well-known mushroom-forming fungi that include some edible species. These gilled mushrooms are characterised by the brittle flesh of their fruitbodies.

<i>Entoloma sinuatum</i> Species of poisonous fungus in the family Entolomataceae found across Europe and North America

Entoloma sinuatum is a poisonous mushroom found across Europe and North America. Some guidebooks refer to it by its older scientific names of Entoloma lividum or Rhodophyllus sinuatus. The largest mushroom of the genus of pink-spored fungi known as Entoloma, it is also the type species. Appearing in late summer and autumn, fruit bodies are found in deciduous woodlands on clay or chalky soils, or nearby parklands, sometimes in the form of fairy rings. Solid in shape, they resemble members of the genus Tricholoma. The ivory to light grey-brown cap is up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across with a margin that is rolled inward. The sinuate gills are pale and often yellowish, becoming pink as the spores develop. The thick whitish stem has no ring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entolomataceae</span> Family of fungi

The Entolomataceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. The family contains eight genera and 2250 species, the majority of which are in Entoloma. Basidiocarps are typically agaricoid, but a minority are cyphelloid. secotioid, or gasteroid. All produce pink basidiospores that are variously angular (polyhedral), ridged, or nodulose. Species are mostly saprotrophic, though a few are parasitic on other fungi. The family occurs worldwide.

<i>Leptonia</i> Subgenus of fungi

Leptonia is a subgenus of fungi in the genus Entoloma. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps are agaricoid, mostly mycenoid with slender stems. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. Recent DNA evidence has shown that at least 12 species belong in Leptonia in temperate Europe and Asia.

<i>Nolanea</i> Genus of fungi

Nolanea is a subgenus of fungi in the order Agaricales. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps are agaricoid, mostly mycenoid with slender stems. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. Recent DNA evidence has shown that at least 87 species belong to the subgenus Nolanea which has a worldwide distribution.

<i>Rhodocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Rhodocybe is a genus of fungi in the family Entolomataceae. Basidiocarps are agaricoid producing pink basidiospores that are unevenly roughened or pustular under the microscope. Species are saprotrophic and mostly grow on the ground, occasionally on wood. The genus is distributed worldwide.

<i>Ampulloclitocybe clavipes</i> Species of fungus

Ampulloclitocybe clavipes, commonly known as the club-foot or club-footed clitocybe, is a species of gilled mushroom from Europe and North America. The grey brown mushrooms have yellowish decurrent gills and a bulbous stalk, and are found in deciduous and conifer woodlands. Although considered edible, disulfiram-like reactions have been reported after consumption of alcohol after eating this mushroom.

<i>Entoloma austroprunicolor</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma austroprunicolor is a species of agaric fungus in the family Entolomataceae. Described as new to science in 2007, it is found in Tasmania, where it fruits on the ground of wet sclerophyll forests in late spring to early winter. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) have reddish-purple caps measuring up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter supported by whitish stipes measuring 3–7.5 cm (1.2–3.0 in) long by 0.2–0.6 cm (0.1–0.2 in) thick. On the cap underside, the crowded gills are initially white before turning pink as the spores mature.

<i>Entoloma abortivum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma abortivum, commonly known as the aborted entoloma or shrimp of the woods, is an edible mushroom in the Entolomataceae family of fungi. Caution should be used in identifying the species before eating. First named Clitopilus abortivus by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis, it was given its current name by the Dutch mycologist Marinus Anton Donk in 1949.

<i>Tricholoma album</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma album, commonly known as the white knight, is an all-white mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in Europe, India, and possibly North America. The cap and gills are white. The whitish stipe has no ring.

<i>Infundibulicybe geotropa</i> Species of fungus

Infundibulicybe geotropa, also known as the trooping funnel or monk's head, is a funnel-shaped toadstool widely found in Europe and in North America. A large sturdy cream- or buff-coloured funnel-shaped mushroom, it grows in mixed woodlands, often in troops or fairy rings, one of which is over half a mile wide. Although edible, it could be confused with some poisonous species of similar colouration and size.

<i>Entoloma bloxamii</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma bloxamii, commonly known as the midnight blue entoloma, or big blue pinkgill, is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma bloxamii has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma medianox. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Big Blue Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma mathinnae</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma mathinnae is a species of agaric fungus in the family Entolomataceae. Known only from Tasmania, Australia, it was described as new to science in 2009. Mushrooms have light yellow-brown, convex caps up to 8 cm (3.1 in) wide atop stems measuring 5–8.5 cm (2.0–3.3 in) long.

<i>Rhizomarasmius setosus</i> Species of fungus

Rhizomarasmius setosus is a tiny whitish mushroom having a distinctive hairy stem. It has been given the vernacular name "Beechleaf Parachute".

<i>Entoloma porphyrophaeum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma porphyrophaeum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Lilac Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma porphyrophaeum has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma canadense. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Lilac Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma prunuloides</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma prunuloides is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Mealy Pinkgill, based on its distinctive smell. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Mealy Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma griseocyaneum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma griseocyaneum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Felted Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Felted Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. ↑ "Catalogue of Life" . Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  2. ↑ Fries, EM (1838). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici: Seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum. Vol. 1–2. Uppsala, Sweden: Regiae Academiae Typographia.
  3. ↑ Kummer, Paul (1871). Der Führer in die Pilzkunde : Anleitung zum methodischen, leichten und sichern Bestimmen der in Deutschland vorkommenden Pilze : mit Ausnahme der Schimmel- und allzu winzigen Schleim- und Kern-Pilzchen. Zerbst: Verlag von E. Luppe's Buchhandlung. pp. 94–97.
  4. 1 2 Orton PD (1991). "A revised list of British species of Entoloma sensu lato". The Mycologist. 5 (3): 123–138. doi:10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80307-8.
  5. ↑ Orton PD (1991). "A revised list of British species of Entoloma sensu lato (part 2)". The Mycologist. 5 (4): 172–176. doi:10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80478-3.
  6. 1 2 Largent DL (1994). Entolomatoid fungi of the western United States and Alaska. USA: Mad River Press.
  7. ↑ Quélet L. (1886). Enchiridion fungorum in Europa media et praesertim in Gallia vigentium. Switzerland: O. Doin. p. 155.
  8. ↑ Donk, M.A. (1962). "The generic names proposed for Agaricaceae". Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia. 5: 1–320. ISSN   0078-2238.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Noordeloos ME (1992). Fungi Europaei:Entoloma sensu lato. Saronno, Italy: Giovanna Biella. p. 760.
  10. ↑ Co-David D, Langeveld D, Noordeloos ME (2009). "Molecular phylogeny and spore evolution of Entolomataceae" (PDF). Persoonia. 23: 147–76. doi:10.3767/003158509X480944. PMC   2802732 . PMID   20198166.
  11. ↑ Reschke K, Morozova OV, Dima B, Cooper JA, Corriol G, Biketova AY, Piepenbring M, Noordeloos ME (2022). "Phylogeny, taxonomy, and character evolution in Entoloma subgenus Nolanea" (PDF). Persoonia. 49: 136–170. doi:10.3767/persoonia.2022.49.04. PMC   10792224 . PMID   38234382.
  12. ↑ Karstedt F, Bergemann SE, Capelari M (2020). "Five Nolanea spp. nov. from Brazil" (PDF). Mycotaxon. 135 (3): 589–612. doi:10.5248/135.589. S2CID   226328843.
  13. ↑ Baroni TJ, Hofstetter V, Largent DL, Vilgalys R (2011). "Entocybe is proposed as a new genus in the Entolomataceae (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota) based on morphological and molecular evidence" (PDF). North American Fungi. 6 (12): 1–19. doi: 10.2509/naf2011.006.012 (inactive 2024-03-10).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link)
  14. ↑ Nilson S, Persson O (1977). Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi. Penguin. p. 98. ISBN   0-14-063006-6.
  15. ↑ Agerer R (1997). "Entoloma sinuatum (Bull.: Fr.) Kummer + Salix spec". Descriptions of Ectomycorrhizae. 2: 13–18.
  16. ↑ Montecchio L, Rossi S, Courty P, Garbaye J (2006). "Descriptions of Ectomycorrhizae. Entoloma nitidum Quel. plus Carpinus betulus L." Descriptions of Ectomycorrhizae. 9/10: 31–36.
  17. ↑ Agerer R, Waller K (1993). "Mycorrhizae of Entoloma saepium: parasitism or symbiosis?". Mycorrhiza. 3 (4): 145–154. Bibcode:1993Mycor...3..145A. doi:10.1007/BF00203608. S2CID   38744989.
  18. ↑ Shishikura M, Takemura Y, Sotome K, Maekawa N, Nakagiri A, Endo N (2021). "Four mycelial strains of Entoloma clypeatum species complex form ectomycorrhiza-like roots with Pyrus betulifolia seedlings in vitro, and one develops fruiting bodies 2 months after inoculation". Mycorrhiza. 31 (1): 31–42. Bibcode:2021Mycor..31...31S. doi:10.1007/s00572-020-00994-4. PMID   33105488. S2CID   254047880.
  19. ↑ Koch RA, Herr JR (2021). "Transcriptomics Reveals the Putative Mycoparasitic Strategy of the Mushroom Entoloma abortivum on Species of the Mushroom Genus Armillaria". mSystems. 6 (5): e0054421. doi:10.1128/mSystems.00544-21. PMC   8510539 . PMID   34636668.
  20. 1 2 3 "Entoloma: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" . Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  21. 1 2 3 Benjamin, Denis R. (1995). Mushrooms: Poisons and Panaceas—A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists and Physicians. New York: WH Freeman and Company. ISBN   0-7167-2600-9.
  22. ↑ Badham CD (1847). A treatise on the esculent funguses of England. London: Reeve Bros. p. 138.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Beug MW, Shaw M, Cochran KW (2006). "Thirty-Plus Years of Mushroom Poisoning: Summary of the Approximately 2,000 Reports in the NAMA Case Registry" (PDF). McIlvainea. 16 (2): 47–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  24. 1 2 Li H, Zhang H, Zhang Y, Zhang K, Zhou J, Yin Y, Jiang S, Ma P, He Q, Zhang Y, Wen K, Yuan Y, Lang N, Lu J, Sun C (2020). "Mushroom Poisoning Outbreaks — China, 2019[J]" (PDF). China CDC Weekly. 2 (2)): 19–24. doi:10.46234/ccdcw2020.005. PMC   8392910 . PMID   34594654.
  25. ↑ Boa ER. (2004). Wild Edible Fungi: A Global Overview of Their Use and Importance to People. Food & Agriculture Organization. p. 138. ISBN   978-92-5-105157-3.
  26. ↑ Spoerke DG, Rumack BH (1994). Handbook of mushroom poisoning: diagnosis and treatment. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
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