Ethnic Chinese in Mongolia

Last updated
Chinese Mongolians
Total population
40,000 (1987 est.)
2% of the Mongolian population
Regions with significant populations
No data
Languages
Chinese, Mongolian
Related ethnic groups
Overseas Chinese

Chinese Mongolians can be subdivided into three groups: Mongolian citizens of ethnic Chinese background, temporary residents with Chinese citizenship, and permanent residents with Chinese citizenship. Mongolia's 1956 census counted ethnic Chinese as 1.9% of the population; the United States government estimated their proportion to be 2% in 1987, or roughly 40,000 people. [1] The 2000 census showed 1,323 permanent residents of Chinese descent; this figure does not include naturalised citizens, temporary residents, nor illegal immigrants. [2] Illegal immigrants from China were estimated at 10,000 in the 1990s; some use Mongolia as a transit point into Russia. [3]

Contents

Second Turkic Khaganate

Ethnic Chinese artists were hired by Bilge Khagan of the Second Turkic Khaganate. [4] [5] Chinese text on a silk piece of yellow color was found in a Turkic tomb. [6]

Liao dynasty

During the Liao dynasty, Han Chinese lived in Kedun, situated in present-day Mongolia. [7] Chinese farmers migrated in. [8] [9] [10] Many Han people migrated to cities located in modern-day Mongolia under Liao rule. [11]

Yuan dynasty

Ethnic Han officials were sent by the Yuan dynasty to the Lingbei Province (modern-day Mongolia and Siberia; 和宁路 益蘭州 謙州). [12] The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Han origin, and Samarkand and Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Han origin, as observed by Qiu Chuji. [13]

Ming dynasty

During the Ming dynasty, ethnic Chinese military frontiersmen in Liaodong were prone to mixing and acculturating with non-Han tribesmen. [14]

Ethnic Chinese soldiers served in the Yuan army against the Ming, and the Mongols were joined by many Chinese defectors. The Mongol Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. Some Chinese people who lived among the Mongols in Inner Mongolia, while in their youth, adopted Mongol culture and married Mongol women. A Han military officer who defected to the Mongols was "Monkey Li" (Li Huai) who fought against the Ming dynasty. [15] [16] [17]

Qing dynasty

Chinese temple in Maimachin, 1885 Chinese temple in Maimachin, Mongolia LCCN99615504.tif
Chinese temple in Maimachin, 1885

Historically, the Gobi served as a barrier to large-scale Han settlement in what was, before 1921, called Outer Mongolia; the unsuitability of most of the territory for agriculture made settlement less attractive. Some Han settlements in Mongolia were founded in 1725, when farmers moved there by decree of the Qing dynasty to cultivate food for soldiers fighting against the Dzungars. They were established in the Orkhon and Tuul river basins, and in 1762, in the Khovd region. After the fighting ended, the Qing closed off Mongolia (then under Qing rule) to immigration [18] and occasionally evicted Han merchants.

Despite those restrictions, trade firms owned by Han people continually penetrated Mongolia, concentrating mainly in Ikh Khüree, Uliastai, Khovd and Kyakhta. Their trade practices and the lifestyle of the Mongol nobility lead to an ever-increasing indebtedness of the banners, nobles, and ordinary people, and Han-owned businesses became a target of public discontent as early as Chingünjav's uprising in 1756. The spill-over from the Dungan rebellions of the 1870s into Mongolia also saw a number of Han-owned businesses in Khovd and Uliastai destroyed. Many of the ethnic Han merchants lived in Mongolia only seasonally or until they had made enough money to return to China proper. Others took Mongol wives, at least for the time of being in Mongolia.

In 1906, the Qing dynasty began to implement policies[ which? ] aimed at Chinese colonization of Outer Mongolia along the lines of those in Inner Mongolia, but these policies never took full effect as a result of the Xinhai Revolution and the Mongolian declaration of independence from China. The total Han population at that time, mainly consisting of traders and artisans, but also of some colonists, can be estimated to have been at some ten thousand.[ citation needed ]

Since 1911

A 1915 cover, red band from Urga to Beijing, written by Chinese merchant. First Day Russian Post in Mongolia Urga 1915.jpg
A 1915 cover, red band from Urga to Beijing, written by Chinese merchant.

Upon Mongolia's declaration of independence, many Chinese became victims of atrocities,[ citation needed ] particularly in Khovd. However, after 1912, Chinese businesses were able to continue their operations, including collection of debts, largely unimpeded. It was only the establishment of communism that meant an end to Chinese trade in Mongolia. Ever-increasing obstacles to commerce were created, and the closure of the border to China for imports in 1928 meant an end for Chinese enterprise in the country.

With the People's Republic of China development aid projects of the 1950s, many Han Chinese entered Mongolia, beginning in 1955. By 1961, they had reached a number of 20,000. However, after the Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s, in which Mongolia sided with the Soviets, China eventually withdrew most of its workers. [19] At the same time, Mongolian politicians or academicians with alleged links to China (e.g. Ts. Lookhuuz or G. Sükhbaatar) became victims of political purges. In the early 1980s, Ulan Bator was reported to have a small Chinese community, which published a Chinese-language newspaper and which looked to the Chinese embassy there for moral support. However, in 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the remaining 7,000 Chinese contract workers in Mongolia to China. At the same time, ethnic Chinese who had become naturalized citizens were reported to be unaffected. Because the presence and the status of Chinese residents in Mongolia were politically sensitive subjects, Mongolian sources usually avoided mentioning the Chinese at all. [1]

After the introduction of democracy, another wave of Chinese immigrants has entered the country. Many of the migrants work in the construction sector, while others run small or medium enterprises. Negative sentiment against Chinese migrants remains; [20] China is seen as a potential threat to Mongolia's security and cultural identity. [21] However, not all recent immigrants from China are ethnic Han Chinese; in particular, there are a number of Inner Mongolians. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China proper</span> Geopolitical term

The China proper, Inner China or Eighteen Provinces inside the Pass is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China.

The Manchus are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and Qing (1636–1912) dynasties of China were established and ruled by the Manchus, who are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China. Manchus form the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group in the country. They can be found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing have over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning and one-fifth in Hebei. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin, Xiuyan, Qinglong, Fengning, Yitong, Qingyuan, Weichang, Kuancheng, Benxi, Kuandian, Huanren, Fengcheng, Beizhen and over 300 Manchu towns and townships. Manchus are the largest minority group in China without an autonomous region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dorgon</span> Prince regent of Qing China (r. 1643–50)

Dorgon, was a Manchu prince and regent of the early Qing dynasty. Born in the House of Aisin-Gioro as the 14th son of Nurhaci, Dorgon started his career in military campaigns against the Mongols, the Koreans, and the Ming dynasty during the reign of Hong Taiji who succeeded their father.

The Eight Banners were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin and Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu households were placed. In war, the Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by Nurhaci, the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented Jurchen people and in the Qing dynasty's conquest of the Ming dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hong Taiji</span> 2nd khan of Later Jin (r. 1626-36); founding emperor of Qing (r. 1636-43)

Hong Taiji, also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin dynasty and the founding emperor of the Qing dynasty. He was responsible for consolidating the empire that his father Nurhaci had founded and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming dynasty, although he died before this was accomplished. He was also responsible for changing the name of the Jurchen ethnicity to "Manchu" in 1635, and changing the name of his dynasty from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636. The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912.

Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states. It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.

The Seven Grievances was a manifesto announced by Nurhaci, khan of the Later Jin, on the thirteenth day of the fourth lunar month in the third year of the Tianming era of his reign; 7 May 1618. It effectively declared war against the Ming dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green Standard Army</span> Qing dynasty military and police force

The Green Standard Army was the name of a category of military units under the control of Qing dynasty in China. It was made up mostly of ethnic Han soldiers and operated concurrently with the Manchu-Mongol-Han Eight Banner armies. In areas with a high concentration of Hui people, Muslims served as soldiers in the Green Standard Army. After the Qing consolidated control over China, the Green Standard Army was primarily used as a police force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Queue (hairstyle)</span> Hairstyle worn by the Jurchen and Manchu peoples of Manchuria

A queue or cue is a hairstyle worn by the Jurchen and Manchu peoples of Manchuria, and was later required to be worn by male subjects of Qing China. Hair on top of the scalp is grown long and is often braided, while the front portion of the head is shaved. The distinctive hairstyle led to its wearers being targeted during anti-Chinese riots in Australia and the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongolia under Qing rule</span> 1635–1911 Chinese rule over Mongolia

Mongolia under Qing rule was the rule of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China over the Mongolian Plateau, including the four Outer Mongolian aimags and the six Inner Mongolian aimags from the 17th century to the end of the dynasty. The term "Mongolia" is used here in the broader historical sense, and includes an area much larger than the modern-day state of Mongolia. Ligdan saw much of his power weakened due to the disunity of the Mongol tribes. He was subsequently defeated by the Later Jin dynasty and died soon afterwards. His son Ejei handed the Yuan imperial seal over to Hong Taiji in 1635, thus ending the rule of the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. However, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia continued to rule until they were overrun by the Dzungar Khanate in 1690, and they submitted to the Qing dynasty in 1691.

De-Sinicization is a process of eliminating or reducing Han Chinese cultural elements, identity, or consciousness from a society or nation. In modern contexts, it is often contrasted with the assimilation process of Sinicization.

Zu Dashou, courtesy name Fuyu (復宇), was a Chinese military general who served on the northern border of the Ming dynasty during the Ming–Qing transition period of Chinese history. He fought against the Qing dynasty in several major engagements before ultimately surrendering to them in 1642. An alleged descendant of the Eastern Jin dynasty general Zu Ti, he was the maternal uncle of the Ming general Wu Sangui, who surrendered Shanhai Pass to Qing forces and defected to the Qing side. Zu's tomb was acquired by the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada, and is considered one of the "iconic objects" of the museum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Qing sentiment</span> Han Chinese sentiment principally held in China against Manchu rule during the Qing dynasty

Anti-Qing sentiment refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the rule of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1636–1912), which was criticized by opponents as being "barbaric". The Qing was accused of destroying traditional Han culture by enforcing policies such as forcing Han to wear their hair in a queue in the Manchu style. It was blamed for suppressing Chinese science, causing China to be transformed from the world's premiere power to a poor, backwards nation. The people of the Eight Banners lived off government pensions unlike the general Han civilian population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dzungar people</span> Ethnic group descending from the Oirat Mongol tribes

The Dzungar people are the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically, they were one of the major tribes of the Four Oirat confederation. They were also known as the Eleuths or Ööled, from the Qing dynasty euphemism for the hated word "Dzungar", and as the "Kalmyks". In 2010, 15,520 people claimed "Ööled" ancestry in Mongolia. An unknown number also live in China, Russia and Kazakhstan.

Various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei state, the Rouran Khaganate (330–555), the First (552–603) and Second Turkic Khaganates (682–744) and others, ruled the area of present-day Mongolia. The Khitan people, who used a para-Mongolic language, founded an empire known as the Liao dynasty (916–1125), and ruled Mongolia and portions of North China, northern Korea, and the present-day Russian Far East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nurhaci</span> Jurchen chieftain; founding khan of the Later Jin dynasty (r. 1616–26)

Nurhaci, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing, was the founding khan of the Jurchen Later Jin dynasty of China from 1616 to 1626.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transition from Ming to Qing</span> Period of Chinese history (1618–1683)

The transition from Ming to Qing or the Manchu conquest of China from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major dynasties in Chinese history. It was a decades-long conflict between the emerging Qing dynasty, the incumbent Ming dynasty, and several smaller factions. It ended with the consolidation of Qing rule, and the fall of the Ming and several other factions.

Geng Zhongming was a Chinese military general who lived through the transition from the Ming (1368–1644) to the Qing (1644–1912) dynasty, during which he served both sides. His grandson Geng Jingzhong was one of the Three Feudatories who rebelled against Qing rule in the 1670s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</span> Historical territories of the Manchu-led Qing empire

The Qing dynasty in Inner Asia was the expansion of the Qing dynasty's realm in Inner Asia in the 17th and the 18th century AD, including both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia, both Manchuria and Outer Manchuria, Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang.

Li Yongfang was a Chinese general of the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty known for defecting to the Qing dynasty, due to the Ming dynasty losing the city of Fushun in Liaoning to the Qing. Li Yongfang along with many other Han Chinese defected to the Qing as the old Ming system was declining and corrupt, and the Qing provided an opportunity for the Han Chinese to continue their culture. One of Li Yongfang's descendants Li Shiyao was sentenced to death by the Qianlong emperor but was spared his life when he helped suppress the Lin Shuangwen rebellion in Taiwan.

References

Notes

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

  1. 1 2 LOC 1989 , Ch. 2.3.2
  2. ↑ Batbayar 2006 , p. 221
  3. ↑ Bedeski 1999 , Mongolia--A Demographic Buffer?
  4. ↑ Ross, E. Denison; Thomsen, Vilhelm (1930). "The Orkhon Inscriptions: Being a Translation of Professor Vilhelm Thomsen's Final Danish Rendering". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 5 (4): 861–876. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00090558. JSTOR   607024. S2CID   140199091.
  5. ↑ Scharlipp, Wolfgang-Eckhard. "China and Tibet as Referred to in the Old Turkic Inscriptions".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ↑ Tsagaan Törbat; Dunbüree Batsükh; Jan Bemmann; Thomas O. Höllmann; Peter Zieme. A rock tomb of the ancient Turkic period in the Zhargalant Khairkhan Mountains, Khovd Aimag, with the oldest preserved horse-head fiddle in Mongolia – A preliminary report (PDF) (Report). pp. 369, 379–380.
  7. ↑ Michal Biran (15 September 2005). The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–. ISBN   978-0-521-84226-6.
  8. ↑ "辽代的"一国两制" - 史海钩沉 - 文史天地【中国历史文化传播网】". Archived from the original on 2016-08-07. Retrieved 2016-07-26.
  9. ↑ "遼國 ::中華萬年網::China10K::". www.china10k.com.
  10. ↑ "金漠银水逞英豪亦有契丹能赋诗——漫述辽代汉诗的发展_刀锋上的文明 梅毅_国学导航". Archived from the original on 2016-09-10. Retrieved 2016-07-26.
  11. ↑ Denis C. Twitchett; Herbert Franke; John King Fairbank (25 November 1994). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–. ISBN   978-0-521-24331-5.
  12. ↑ History of Yuan 《 元史 》，
  13. ↑ Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization . Cambridge University Press. pp.  377–. ISBN   978-0-521-49781-7.
  14. ↑ Frederic E. Wakeman (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 39–. ISBN   978-0-520-04804-1.
  15. ↑ Frederic E. Wakeman (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 41–. ISBN   978-0-520-04804-1.
  16. ↑ Frederic E. Wakeman (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 41–. ISBN   978-0-520-04804-1.
  17. ↑ Oriens extremus. Kommissionverlag O. Harrasowitz. 1959. p. 137.
  18. ↑ Batbayar 2006 , p. 216
  19. ↑ Sergey Radchenko. "The Soviets' Best Friend in Asia" (PDF). p. 14.
  20. ↑ Bille, Franck (2014-12-30). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity. Univ of Hawaii Pr. ISBN   9780824839826.
  21. ↑ "Anti-Chinese sentiment swelling in Mongolia", Asian Economic News, 2005-04-11, retrieved 2007-02-23
  22. ↑ Uradyn 1998 , p. 188

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.