List of genetically modified crops

Last updated

Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. As of 2015, 26 plant species have been genetically modified and approved for commercial release in at least one country. The majority of these species contain genes that make them either tolerant to herbicides or resistant to insects. Other common traits include virus resistance, delayed ripening, modified flower colour or altered composition. In 2014, 28 countries grew GM crops, and 39 countries imported but did not grow them. [1]

Contents

Background

Regulations regarding the commercialisation of genetically modified crops are mostly conducted by individual countries. For cultivation, environmental approval determines whether a crop can be legally grown. Separate approval is generally required to use GM crops in food for human consumption or as animal feed. [2] [3]

GM crops were first planted commercially on a large scale in 1996, in the US, China, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. [1] Some countries have approved but not actually cultivated GM crops, due to public uncertainty or further government restrictions, while at the same time, they may import GM foods for consumption. For example, Japan is a leading GM food importer, and permits but has not grown GM food crops. The European Union regulates importation of GM foods, while individual member states determine cultivation. [4] In the US, separate regulatory agencies handle approval for cultivation (USDA, EPA) and for human consumption (FDA). [5]

Two genetically modified crops have been approved for food use in some countries, but have not obtained approval for cultivation. A GM Melon engineered for delayed senescence was approved in 1999 and a herbicide tolerant GM wheat was approved in 2004.

Genetically modified crops cultivated in 2014

Distribution of GM crops planted in 2014

  GM soybean (50%)
  GM maize (30%)
  GM cotton (14%)
  GM canola (5%)
  Other (1%)

In 2014, 181.5 million hectares of genetically modified crops were planted in 28 countries. Half of all GM crops planted were genetically modified soybeans, either for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. Eleven countries grew modified soybean, with the USA, Brazil and Argentina accounting for 90% of the total hectarage. Of the 111 hectares of soybean grown worldwide in 2014, 82% was genetically modified in some way. Seventeen countries grew a total of 55.2 million hectares of genetically modified maize and fifteen grew 23.9 hectares of genetically modified cotton. Nine million hectares of genetically modified canola was grown with 8 million of those in Canada. Other GM crops grown in 2014 include Alfalfa (862 000 ha), sugar beet (494 000 ha) and papaya (7 475 ha). In Bangladesh a genetically modified eggplant was grown commercially for the first time on 12 ha. [6]

The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. In 2014, 154 million hectares were planted with a herbicide resistant crop and 78.8 million hectares had insect resistant. This include 51.4 million hectares planted in thirteen countries that contained both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. Less than one million hectares contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence, modifying flower colour and altering the plants composition. Drought tolerant maize was planted for just the second year in the USA on 275 000 hectares. [6]

Herbicide tolerance

Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties. [7] They comprised 83% of the total GM crop area, equating to just under 8% of the arable land worldwide. [7] Approval has been granted to grow crops engineered to be resistant to the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, [8] dicamba, [9] glufosinate [10] glyphosate, [11] sulfonylurea, [12] oxynil [13] mesotrione [14] and isoxaflutole [15] Most herbicide resistant GM crops have been engineered for glyphosate tolerance, in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant. [16]

GMOUseCountries approved inFirst approved [17] Notes
Alfalfa Animal feed [18] USA2005Approval withdrawn in 2007 [19] and then re-approved in 2011 [20]
Canola Cooking oil

Margarine

Emulsifiers in packaged foods [18]

Australia2003
Canada1995
USA1995
Cotton Fiber
Cottonseed oil
Animal feed [18]
Except in India, where Cottonseed oil used for human consumption		Argentina2001
Australia2002
Brazil2008
Colombia2004
Costa Rica2008
India2002
Mexico2000
Paraguay2013
South Africa2000
USA1994
Maize Animal feed

high-fructose corn syrup

corn starch [18]

Argentina1998
Brazil2007
Canada1996
Colombia2007
Cuba2011
European Union1998Grown in Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania [21]
Honduras2001
Paraguay2012
Philippines2002
South Africa2002
USA1995
Uruguay2003
Soybean Animal feed

Soybean oil [18]

Argentina1996
Bolivia2005
Brazil1998
Canada1995
Chile2007
Costa Rica2001
Mexico1996
Paraguay2004
South Africa2001
USA1993
Uruguay1996
Sugar Beet Food [22] Canada2001
USA1998Commercialised 2007, [23] production blocked 2010, resumed 2011. [22]

Insect resistance

Most currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium. Most are in the form of delta endotoxin genes known as cry proteins, while a few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins. [24] Insect resistant crops target various species of coleopteran (beetles) [25] and lepidopteran (moths). [26] The only gene commercially used to provide insect protection that does not originate from B. thuringiensis is the Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). CpTI was first approved for use cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing trials in rice. [27] [28]

GMOUseCountries approved inFirst approved [17] Notes
Cotton Fiber
Cottonseed oil
Animal feed [18] 		Argentina1998
Australia2003
Brazil2005
Burkina Faso2009
China1997
Colombia2003
Costa Rica2008
India2002Largest producer of Bt cotton [29]
Mexico1996
Myanmar2006 [N 1]
Pakistan2010 [N 1]
Paraguay2007
South Africa1997
Sudan2012
USA1995
Eggplant FoodBangladesh201312 ha planted on 120 farms in 2014 [30]
Maize Animal feed

high-fructose corn syrup

corn starch [18]

Argentina1998
Brazil2005
Columbia2003
Mexico1996Centre of origin for maize [31]
Paraguay2007
Philippines2002
South Africa1997
Uruguay2003
USA1995
PoplarTreeChina1998543 ha of bt poplar planted in 2014 [32]

Stacked traits

Many varieties of GM crops contain more than one resistance gene. This could be in the form of multiple insect resistant genes, multiple herbicide tolerance genes or a combination of the herbicide and insect resistant genes. Smartstax is a brand of GM maize that has eight different genes added to it, making it resistant to two types of herbicides and toxic to six different species of insects. [33]

Other modified traits

While most crops are engineered to resist insects or tolerate herbicides some crops have been developed for other traits. Flowers have been engineered to display colours that they cannot do so naturally (in particular the blue color in roses). A few crops, like the genetically modified papaya, are engineered to resist viruses. Other modifications alter the plants composition, with the aim of making it more nutritious, longer lasting or more industrially useful. Recently crops engineered to tolerate drought have been commercialised.

GMOUseTraitCountries approved inFirst approved [17] Notes
Canola Cooking oil

Margarine

Emulsifiers in packaged foods [18]

High laurate canolaCanada1996
USA1994
Phytase productionUSA1998
CarnationOrnamentalDelayed senescence Australia1995
Norway1998
Modified flower colourAustralia1995
Colombia2000In 2014 4 ha were grown in greenhouses for export [34]
European Union1998Two events expired 2008, another approved 2007
Japan2004
Malaysia2012For ornamental purposes
Norway1997
Maize Animal feed

high-fructose corn syrup

corn starch [18]

Increased lysine Canada2006
USA2006
Drought toleranceCanada2010
USA2011
PapayaFood [18] Virus resistanceChina2006
USA1996Mostly grown in Hawaii [18]
PetuniaOrnamentalModified flower colour1998 [N 1]
Potato Food [18] Virus resistanceCanada1999
USA1997
Industrial [35] Modified starch USA2014
Rose OrnamentalModified flower colourAustralia2009Surrendered renewal
Colombia2010 [N 2] Greenhouse cultivation for export only.
Japan2008
USA2011
Soybean Animal feed

Soybean oil [18]

Increased oleic acid productionArgentina2015
Canada2000
USA1997
Stearidonic acid productionCanada2011
USA2011
SquashFood [18] Virus resistanceUSA1994
Sugar CaneFoodDrought toleranceIndonesia2013Environmental certificate only
Tobacco CigarettesNicotine reductionUSA2002

Genetically modified crops that are no longer cultivated

GMOUseTraitCountries approved inFirst approved [17] Notes
Potato Food [18] Insect resistanceCanada1995Withdrawn from market 2001 [36]
USA1994
Industrial [35] Modified starch European Union2010Development stopped 2012 [37]
Rice FoodInsect resistanceIran2004Grown on 4000 ha in 2005 [38]
Tobacco CigarettesHerbicide resistanceChina1992 [39] Not grown since 1995 due to strong opposition from tobacco importers. [39] [40]
Tomato FoodDelayed softeningUSA1992Production stopped 1997 [41]

First GM food (see Flavr Savr)

Approved genetically modified crops that have not yet been cultivated

GMOUseTraitCountries approved inFirst approved [17] Notes
AppleFood [18] Delayed browningCanada2015
USA2015
BeanViral disease resistanceBrazil2011
ChicoryAnimal feedHerbicide toleranceUSA1997
Eucalyptus TreeAltered growthBrazil2015
Flax Linseed Oil Herbicide toleranceUSA1999Canada gained approval in 1996, but it was rescinded in 2001 [42]
Grass Ornamental TurfgrassHerbicide toleranceUSA2003Rescinded approval in 2017 due to seed contamination in Oregon [43]
PlumFoodVirus resistanceUSA2007
Potato Food [18] Reduced acrylamide

Blackspot bruise tolerance

Late blight resistance

USA2015
Virus resistanceCanada1999
USA1997
Industrial [35] Modified starch USA2014
Sweet pepperFoodVirus resistanceChina1998

Genetically modified crops by country

CountryGM foodHa grown in 2014 [44]
ArgentinaCotton530 000
Maize3 000 000
Soybean20 800 000
AustraliaCanola342 000
Carnation
Cotton200 000
BangladeshEggplant12
BrazilCotton600 000
Maize12 500 000
Soybean29 100 000
BoliviaSoybean1 000 000
Burkina FasoCotton454,124 [N 3]
CanadaCanola8 000 000
Maize1 400 000
Soybean2 200 000
Sugar beet15 000
ChileCanola2 000
Maize7 000
Soybean1 000
ChinaCotton3 900 000
Papaya8 475
Poplar543
Sweet pepper
Tomato
ColombiaCotton18 000
Maize81 000
Costa RicaCotton36.3
Soybean1.7
CubaMaize3 000
Czech RepublicMaize1,754
HondurasMaize29 000
IndiaCotton11 600 000
MexicoCotton160 000
Soybean10 000
MyanmarCotton318,000
PakistanCotton2 850 000
ParaguayCotton36 000
Maize500 000
Soybean3 300 000
PhilippinesMaize831 000
PortugalMaize8 542
RomaniaMaize771
SlovakiaMaize441
South AfricaCotton9 000
Maize2 150 000
Soybean552 000
SpainMaize131,538
SudanCotton90 000
United States of AmericaAlfalfa862 000
Canola685 000
Cotton4 500 000
Maize34 500 000
Papaya1 000
Potato
Soybean32 300 000
Squash1 000
Sugar beet479 000
UruguayMaize90 000
Soybean1 550 000

The following graph shows the area planted in GM crops in the five largest GM crop producing countries. The area planted is presented along the y axis in thousands of hectares while the year is along the x axis. [N 4]

See also

References and notes

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 No official public documentation available
  2. ↑ No public documents
  3. ↑ GM cotton production was banned in 2016 due to economic and quality concerns. [45]
  4. ↑ The data for the graph is calculated from information found in ISAAA briefs. [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] The other values were found by adding up all the area for GM crop producing countries (excluding the top five).

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified maize</span> Genetically modified crop

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic engineering</span> Manipulation of an organisms genome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food</span> Foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA

Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified crops</span> Plants used in agriculture

Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Bt cotton is a genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton variety that produces an insecticide to combat bollworm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food controversies</span> Controversies over GMO food

Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications</span>

The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) is a non-profit international organization that shares agricultural biotechnology, focusing on genetic engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified plant</span> Plants with human-introduced genes from other organisms

Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability is most often taken advantage by genetic engineers through selecting cells that can successfully be transformed into an adult plant which can then be grown into multiple new plants containing transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.

Roundup Ready is the Monsanto trademark for its patented line of genetically modified crop seeds that are resistant to its glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup.

The United States is the largest grower of commercial crops that have been genetically engineered in the world, but not without domestic and international opposition.

Genetically modified wheat is wheat that has been genetically engineered by the direct manipulation of its genome using biotechnology. As of 2020, no GM wheat is grown commercially, although many field tests have been conducted, with one wheat variety, Bioceres HB4 Wheat, obtaining regulatory approval from the Argentinean government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified rice</span>

Genetically modified rice are rice strains that have been genetically modified. Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as vitamin A, accelerate photosynthesis, tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients, flavors or produce human proteins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified soybean</span> Soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques

A genetically modified soybean is a soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques. In 1996, the first genetically modified soybean was introduced to the U.S. by Monsanto. In 2014, 90.7 million hectares of GM soybeans were planted worldwide, making up 82% of the total soybeans cultivation area.

Genetically modified canola is a genetically modified crop. The first strain, Roundup Ready canola, was developed by Monsanto for tolerance to glyphosate, the active ingredient in the commonly used herbicide Roundup.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cry1Ac</span> Crystal protein

Cry1Ac protoxin is a crystal protein produced by the gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) during sporulation. Cry1Ac is one of the delta endotoxins produced by this bacterium which act as insecticides. Because of this, the genes for these have been introduced into commercially important crops by genetic engineering in order to confer pest resistance on those plants.

The Enlist Weed Control System is an agricultural system that includes seeds for genetically modified crops that are resistant to Enlist and the Enlist herbicide; spraying the herbicide will kill weeds but not the resulting crop. The system was developed by Dow AgroSciences, part of Dow Chemical Company. In October 2014 the system was registered for restricted use in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin by the US Environmental Protection Agency. In 2013, the system was approved by Canada for the same uses.

A genetically modified sugar beet is a sugar beet that has been genetically engineered by the direct modification of its genome using biotechnology. Commercialized GM sugar beets make use of a glyphosate-resistance modification developed by Monsanto and KWS Saat. These glyphosate-resistant beets, also called 'Roundup Ready' sugar beets, were developed by 2000, but not commercialized until 2007. For international trade, sugar beets have a Maximum Residue Limit of glyphosate of 15 mg/Kg at harvest. As of 2016, GMO sugar beets are grown in the United States and Canada. In the United States, they play an important role in domestic sugar production. Studies have concluded the sugar from glyphosate-resistant sugar beets is molecularly identical to and so has the same nutritional value as sugar from conventional (non-GMO) sugar beets.

India and China are the two largest producers of genetically modified products in Asia. India currently only grows GM cotton, while China produces GM varieties of cotton, poplar, petunia, tomato, papaya and sweet pepper. Cost of enforcement of regulations in India are generally higher, possibly due to the greater influence farmers and small seed firms have on policy makers, while the enforcement of regulations was more effective in China. Other Asian countries that grew GM crops in 2011 were Pakistan, the Philippines and Myanmar. GM crops were approved for commercialisation in Bangladesh in 2013 and in Vietnam and Indonesia in 2014.

References

  1. 1 2 "19 Years of Biotech Crops in the World" (PDF). isaaa.org. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 February 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  2. ↑ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms". loc.gov. Library of Congress. 9 Jun 2015. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  3. ↑ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms | Law Library of Congress". Loc.gov. March 2014. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  4. ↑ Papademetriou, Theresa (9 Jun 2015). "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: European Union". loc.gov. Library of Congress. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  5. ↑ Acosta, Luis (9 Jun 2015). "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms:United States". loc.gov. Library of Congress. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  6. 1 2 "Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 - ISAAA Brief 49-2014". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  7. 1 2 USA (2016-08-01). "Pleiotropic effects of herbicide-resistance genes on crop yield: a review". Pest Management Science. 69 (8): 897–904. doi:10.1002/ps.3522. PMID   23457026.
  8. ↑ "GM Events with 2,4-D herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  9. ↑ "GM Events with Dicamba herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  10. ↑ "GM Events with Glufosinate herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  11. ↑ "GM Events with Glyphosate herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  12. ↑ "GM Events with Sulfonylurea herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  13. ↑ "GM Events with Oxynil herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  14. ↑ "GM Events with Mesotrione Herbicide Tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
  15. ↑ "GM Events with Isoxaflutole herbicide tolerance| GM Approval Database". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
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  17. 1 2 3 4 5 "GM Crops List | GM Approval Database- ISAAA.org". www.isaaa.org. Retrieved 2016-01-30.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 "All the GMOs Approved In the U.S." TIME.com. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  19. ↑ www.gmo-compass.org. "Lucerne - GMO Database". www.gmo-compass.org. Archived from the original on 2016-07-02. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  20. ↑ "UPDATE 3-U.S. farmers get approval to plant GMO alfalfa". Reuters. 2011-01-27. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  21. ↑ "Infographics: Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 - ISAAA Brief 49-2014 | ISAAA.org". www.isaaa.org. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  22. 1 2 Scott Kilman. "Modified Beet Gets New Life". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  23. ↑ Pollack, Andrew (2007-11-27). "Round 2 for Biotech Beets". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2016-02-15.
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  27. ↑ "SGK321 | GM Approval Database- ISAAA.org". www.isaaa.org. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
  28. ↑ Qiu, Jane (2008-10-15). "Agriculture: Is China ready for GM rice?". Nature News. 455 (7215): 850–852. doi:10.1038/455850a. PMID   18923484.
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  32. ↑ "Facts and trends- China" (PDF). International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications.
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  43. ↑ "Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 11 / Wednesday, January 18, 2017 / Notices" (PDF). Federal Register. Retrieved 2019-02-12.
  44. ↑ "Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 - ISAAA Brief 49-2014 | ISAAA.org". www.isaaa.org. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
  45. ↑ "Top African producer bans GM cotton". Phys.org. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
  46. ↑ "ISAAA Brief 36-2006 > Executive Summary" (PDF). ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  47. ↑ "ISAAA Brief 35-2006 > Executive Summary". ISAAA.org. 2006-09-04. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  48. ↑ "ISAAA Brief 37-2007 - Executive Summary >". ISAAA.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
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