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The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.
NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.
The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability. [1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD. [2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars. [3]
The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.
Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984. [4] [5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.
Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.
From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings. [6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km). [7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.
The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.
Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X-15 program | R&D | 1957–1968 |
| 13 | X-15 Flight 91 | [8] [9] |
Project Mercury | R&D | 1958–1963 | NASA | 11 | Mercury-Atlas 6 | [10] [11] |
Project Gemini | Exploration | 1961–1966 | NASA | 19 | Gemini 4 | [12] |
Project Apollo | Exploration | 1961–1972 | NASA | 14 | Apollo 11 | [13] [14] |
Manned Orbiting Laboratory | Space Operations | 1962–1969 | US Air Force | 1 | Test Flight | [15] |
Space Shuttle program | Space Transportation | 1972–2011 | NASA | 134 | [16] [17] | |
Skylab program | Space Operations | 1973–1974 | NASA | 4 | Skylab 2 | [18] |
Spacelab program | Space Operations | 1973–1998 | 16 | STS-50 | [19] | |
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project | Space Operations | 1975 | 1 | APAS-75 Docking System | [20] | |
International Space Station program | Space Operations | 1984–present | 25 years, 103 days in orbit | [21] [22] | ||
Constellation program | Exploration | 2000s–2010 | NASA | 1 | Ares I-X | [23] |
Journey to Mars program | Exploration | 2010–2017 | NASA | 1 | Exploration Flight Test-1 | [24] [25] [26] |
Lunar Gateway program | Exploration | 2017–present | 0 | [27] | ||
Artemis Program | Exploration | 2017–present | 1 | [28] [29] [30] |
Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Project Vanguard | R&D | 1956–1959 | Naval Research Laboratory | 3 | Vanguard 1 | [31] |
Explorers Program | Exploration | 1958–present | 91 | [32] [33] | ||
Pioneer program | Exploration | 1958–1992 |
| 8 | [34] | |
KH-1 to KH-6 Corona | Reconnaissance | 1959–1972 | 142 | Discoverer 1 | [35] | |
Ranger program | Exploration | 1961–1965 | NASA | 4 | Ranger 7 | [36] [37] |
Strategic missile warning programs | Surveillance | 1960–present | US Space Force | 39 | [38] [39] | |
Mariner program | Exploration | 1962–1973 | NASA | 7 | Mariner 6 and 7 | [40] |
Centaur upper stage program | Space Transportation | 1962–2003 |
| 91 | [41] [42] | |
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) | Weather | 1962–present | 39 | [43] | ||
Lunar Orbiter program | Exploration | 1963–1967 | NASA | 5 | Lunar Orbiter 3 | [44] |
KH-7 Gambit | Reconnaissance | 1963–1967 | 38 | [45] [46] [47] | ||
KH-8 Gambit 3 | Reconnaissance | 1966–1984 | 54 | [48] [49] | ||
Earth Observing System | Earth Science | 1966–present | NASA | 29 | [50] | |
Defense Satellite Communications System | Communications | 1966–present | US Air Force | 63 | DSCS-III | [51] [52] [53] |
KH-9 Hexagon | Reconnaissance | 1971–1984 | 19 | [54] | ||
Landsat program | Earth Science | 1972–present | NASA and USGS | 9 | Landsat 9 | [55] [56] |
NAVSTAR GPS | Navigation | 1973–present | US Air Force (1973–2019) US Space Force (2019 onward) | 77 | GPS Block III | [57] [58] |
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) | Weather | 1975–present | 18 | [59] | ||
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) | Communications | 1983–present | NASA | 14 | [60] | |
Strategic planetary missions | Exploration | 1975–present | NASA | 8 | [61] [62] [63] | |
Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) | Weather | 1978–present | 16 | [64] [65] | ||
Milstar | Communications | 1985–present | US Air Force | 6 | [66] | |
UHF Follow-On program | Communications | 1988–present | US Navy | 11 | [67] | |
Medium Launch Vehicle II (MLV-II) | Space Transportation | 1988–2004 | US Air Force | 14 | [68] | |
Discovery program | Exploration | 1990–present | NASA | 12 | [69] | |
Strategic astrophysics missions | Astrophysics | 1991–present | NASA | 4 | [70] [71] | |
Mars Exploration Program | Exploration | 1993–present | NASA | 8 | [72] [73] | |
NASA Heliophysics division programs | Heliophysics | 1995–present | NASA | 63 | [74] | |
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle | Space Transportation | 1998–present | US Air Force | 106 | [75] [76] | |
New Frontiers program | Exploration | 2003–present | NASA | 3 | [77] | |
X-37B program | R&D | 2006–present |
| 6 | OTV-3 | [78] [79] |
AEHF Satellite Program | Communications | 2010–present | US Space Force | 6 | AEHF-1 | [80] [81] |
Wideband Global Satcom Program | Communications | 2011–present | US Space Force | 10 | WGS-4 | [82] |
The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.
Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Space Adventures | Space tourism | 1998–present | 7 | [83] [84] | ||
SpaceShipOne | Space tourism | 2003–2004 | Scaled Composites | 3 | SpaceShipOne flight 16P | [85] [86] |
SpaceShipTwo | Space tourism | 2010–present | Virgin Galactic | 10 | Virgin Galactic Unity 22 | [87] [88] |
Blue Origin New Shepard | Space tourism | 2015–present | Blue Origin | 24 | Blue Origin NS-18 | [89] [90] |
DearMoon lunar tourism | Space tourism | 2018–present | 0 | [91] [92] | ||
Axiom Space | Space tourism | 2020–present | 3 | Axiom Mission 1 | [93] | |
Polaris program | Space tourism | 2021–present | 1 | Inspiration4 | [94] [95] | |
Commercial Crew Program | Space transportation | 2011–present | 7 | [96] [97] | ||
SpaceX Starship | Space Transportation | 2012–present | SpaceX | 0 | [98] | |
Orbital Reef Space Station | Space Operations | 2021–present | Blue Origin | 0 | [99] |
Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Commercial Launch Services (Atlas) | Space Transportation |
|
|
| AC-69/Atlas I | [100] [101] |
Iridium | Satellite communications | 1987–present | Iridium Communications | 170 | Iridium 77 | [102] |
Globalstar | Satellite communications | 1991–present | Globalstar | 84 | [103] | |
Digital Globe | Earth Imaging | 1992–present | Maxar Technologies | 8 | WorldView-1 | [104] |
Orbcomm | Satellite data messaging | 1992–present | Orbcomm | 62 | [105] | |
International Launch Services (Atlas, Proton) [note 1] | Space transportation | 1995–2006 |
| 100 | [106] [107] | |
Sea Launch (Zenit) | Space transportation | 1995–2014 |
| 36 | [108] | |
DirecTV | Satellite Television | 1995–present | DirecTV | 19 | DirecTV T10 satellite | [109] |
Dish Network | Satellite Television | 1996–present | DISH Network Corporation | 16 | EchoStar X | [110] |
Sirius XM Radio | Satellite Radio | 1997–present |
| 13 | Sirius FM-5 | [111] |
SpaceX Launch Services | Space transportation | 2002–present | SpaceX | xx | [112] | |
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services | Space transportation | 2006–2013 | 3 | [113] | ||
United Launch Alliance Commercial Launch Services | Space Transportation | 2006–present | xx | [114] | ||
Commercial Resupply Services | Space transportation |
|
|
| [115] | |
Planetscope satellite constellation | Earth imaging | 2010–present | Planet Labs | 487 | List of Flock satellite types | [116] |
Rocket Lab (Electron) [note 2] | Space Transportation | 2013–present | Rocket Lab | 41 | List of Electron launches | [117] |
Starlink | Satellite Internet Service | 2016–present | SpaceX | 5,330 | [118] | |
Commercial Lunar Payload Services | Space transportation | 2018–present | 1 | Astrobotic Peregrine Lander | [119] |
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the U.S. space development effort a distinctly civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most American space exploration, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. It currently supports the International Space Station and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the crewed lunar Artemis program, the Commercial Crew spacecraft, and the planned Lunar Gateway space station.
Development of the Commercial Crew Program began in the second round of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, which was rescoped from a technology development program for human spaceflight to a competitive development program that would produce the spacecraft to be used in the Commercial Crew Program to provide crew transportation services to and from the International Space Station (ISS). To implement the program NASA awarded a series of competitive fixed-price contracts to private vendors starting in 2011. Operational contracts to fly astronauts were awarded in September 2014 to SpaceX and Boeing, and NASA expected each company to complete development and achieve crew rating in 2017. Each company performed an uncrewed orbital test flight in 2019. SpaceX operational flights started in November 2020.
The retirement of NASA's Space Shuttle fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery was the first of the three active Space Shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission on March 9, 2011; Endeavour did so on June 1. The final shuttle mission was completed with the landing of Atlantis on July 21, 2011, closing the 30-year Space Shuttle program.
Nanoracks LLC is a private in-space services company which builds space hardware and in-space repurposing tools. The company also facilitates experiments and launches of CubeSats to Low Earth Orbit.
Artemis 2 is a scheduled mission of the NASA-led Artemis program. It will use the second launch of the Space Launch System (SLS) and include the first crewed mission of the Orion spacecraft. The mission is scheduled for no earlier than September 2025. Four astronauts will perform a flyby of the Moon and return to Earth, becoming the first crew to travel beyond low Earth orbit since Apollo 17 in 1972. Artemis 2 will be the first crewed launch from Launch Complex 39B of the Kennedy Space Center since STS-116 in 2006.
Artemis 3 is planned to be the first crewed Moon landing mission of the Artemis program and the first crewed flight of the Starship HLS lander. Artemis 3 is planned to be the second crewed Artemis mission and the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972. In December 2023, the Government Accountability Office reported that the mission is not likely to occur before 2027; as of January 2024, NASA officially expects Artemis 3 to launch no earlier than September 2026.
Firefly Alpha is a two-stage orbital expendable launch vehicle developed by the American company Firefly Aerospace to compete in the commercial small satellite launch market. Alpha is intended to provide launch options for both full vehicle and rideshare customers.
The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, is a space station which Artemis program participants plan to assemble in an orbit near the Moon. The Gateway is intended to serve as a communication hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for astronauts. It is a multinational collaborative project: participants include NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC). The Gateway is planned to be the first space station beyond low Earth orbit.
This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the 2020s.
Axiom Space, Inc., also known as Axiom Space, is an American privately funded space infrastructure developer headquartered in Houston, Texas.
The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program that is led by the United States' NASA and was formally established in 2017 via Space Policy Directive 1. The Artemis program is intended to reestablish a human presence on the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. The program's stated long-term goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars.
This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2026.
This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2025.
The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft, and NASA plans to add Boeing when its Boeing Starliner spacecraft becomes operational no earlier than 2025. NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.
4,520 mph (Mach 6.7 on Oct. 3, 1967,