List of space stations

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The International Space Station in front of the Earth. This image was taken by Space Shuttle Discovery while pulling away during STS-119. ISS after STS-119 in March 2009 1.jpg
The International Space Station in front of the Earth. This image was taken by Space Shuttle Discovery while pulling away during STS-119.
Skylab viewed from the command module of Skylab 2 Skylab Station Viewed by Skylab 2 Command Module - GPN-2000-001709.jpg
Skylab viewed from the command module of Skylab 2
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Space station.[ edit ]

A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in outer space for an extended period of time and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite (i.e., a type of orbital spaceflight). Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies. The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred.

Contents

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station, Salyut 1 (1971), and the deaths of its Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, with its first occupation in 2000.

The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009. On May 30, 2023 there were 11 people on the ISS and 6 on China's TSS: with a total of 17 people in orbit, it set the record for most people in orbit as of 2023. [1]

As of 2024, there are two fully operational space stations in low Earth orbit (LEO) – the International Space Station (ISS) and China's Tiangong Space Station (TSS). The ISS has been permanently inhabited since October 2000 with the Expedition 1 crews and the TSS began continuous inhabitation with the Shenzhou 14 crews in June 2022. These stations are used to study the effects of spaceflight on the human body, as well as to provide a location to conduct a greater number and longer length of scientific studies than is possible on other space vehicles. In 2022, the TSS finished its phase 1 construction with the addition of two lab modules: Wentian ("Quest for the Heavens"), launched on 24 July 2022, and Mengtian ("Dreaming of the Heavens") launched on 31 October 2022, joining the ISS as the most recent space station operating in orbit. In July 2022, Russia announced intentions to withdraw from the ISS after 2024 in order to build its own space station. [2] There have been numerous decommissioned space stations, including the USSR's Salyuts and Mir, NASA's Skylab, and China's Tiangong 1 and Tiangong 2.

Past stations

These stations have re-entered the atmosphere and disintegrated.

The Soviet Union ran two programs simultaneously in the 1970s, both of which were called Salyut publicly. The Long Duration Orbital Station (DOS) program was intended for scientific research into spaceflight. The Almaz program was a secret military program that tested space reconnaissance. [3]

 ‡   = Never crewed

NameProgram
Entity		Crew
size		LaunchedReenteredDays
in orbit		Days
occu-
pied		Total crew
and visitors		Number of
crewed visits		Number of
robotic visits		Mass
(* = at launch)		Pressurized
volume
Salyut 1 DOS [4] 3 [5] 19 April 1971 [6] 11 October 1971 [7] 17524 [8] 6 [9] 2 [9] 0 [9] 18,425 kg (40,620 lb) [6] 100 m3 (3,500 cu ft) [10]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [11]
DOS-2 ‡DOS [12] — [lower-alpha 1] 29 July 1972 [6] [13] 29 July 1972failed to reach orbit————18,000 kg (40,000 lb) [14] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg RVSN [15]
Salyut 2 ‡Almaz [13] — [lower-alpha 1] 3 April 1973 [13] 16 April 1973 [13] 13 [13] ————18,500 kg (40,800 lb) [16] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [17]
Kosmos 557 ‡DOS [18] — [lower-alpha 1] 11 May 1973 [19] 22 May 1973 [20] 11————19,400 kg (42,800 lb) [14] —
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR
Skylab Skylab [21] 3 [22] 14 May 1973 [23] 11 July 1979 [24] 2249171 [25] 9 [26] 3 [27] 0 [28] 77,088 kg (169,950 lb) [29] 360 m3 (12,700 cu ft) [30]
Flag of the United States.svg NASA
Salyut 3 Almaz [4] 2 [31] 25 June 1974 [32] 24 January 1975 [33] 21315 [34] 2 [34] 1 [34] 018,900 kg (41,700 lb)* [35] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [18]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [17]
Salyut 4 DOS [36] 2 [37] 26 December 1974 [38] 3 February 1977 [38] 770 [38] 92 [39] 4 [39] 2 [39] [40] 1 [39] 18,900 kg (41,700 lb) [18] *90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [18]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [15]
Salyut 5 Almaz [36] 2 [41] 22 June 1976 [42] 8 August 1977 [43] 41267 [44] 4 [44] 3 [44] 0 [44] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [18] *100 m3 (3,500 cu ft) [18]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [17]
Salyut 6 DOS [36] [45] 2 [46] 29 September 1977 [46] 29 July 1982 [47] 1764683 [48] 33 [48] 16 [48] 14 [48] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [49] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [50]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [17]
Salyut 7 DOS [36] [45] 3 [51] 19 April 1982 [52] 7 February 1991 [52] 3216 [52] 861 [51] 22 [51] 10 [51] 15 [51] 19,000 kg (42,000 lb) [53] 90 m3 (3,200 cu ft) [18]
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg MOM [17]
Mir DOS [36] [45] 3 [54] 19 February 1986 [55] [lower-alpha 2] 23 March 2001 [24] [55] 5511 [55] 4594 [56] 125 [56] 39 [57] 68 [56] 129,700 kg (285,900 lb) [58] 350 m3 (12,400 cu ft) [59]
Tiangong-1 Tiangong 3 [60] 29 September 2011 [61] [62] 2 April 2018 [63] 2377226 [64] [65] 2 [64] 1 [66] 8,506 kg (18,753 lb) [67] 15 m3 (530 cu ft) [68]
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CMSA
Tiangong-2 Tiangong 215 September 201619 July 20191037292118,506 kg (18,753 lb) [67] 15 m3 (530 cu ft) [68]
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CMSA

Prototypes

These stations are prototypes; they only exist as testing platforms and were never intended to be crewed. OPS 0855 was part of a cancelled Manned Orbiting Laboratory project by the United States, while the Genesis stations were launched privately. The Genesis stations were "retired" when their avionics systems stopped working after two and a half years, yet they still remain in orbit as derelict spacecraft.

NameEntityProgramLaunchedReenteredDays in orbitMassPressurized volume
OPS 0855 Flag of the United States.svg USAF MOL 3 November 1966 [69] 9 January 1967 [69] 679,680 kg (21,340 lb)11.3 m3 (400 cu ft)
Genesis I Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace 12 July 2006 [70] (In Orbit)65121,360 kg (3,000 lb) [71] 11.5 m3 (410 cu ft) [72]
Genesis II 28 June 2007 [70] 616111.5 m3 (406 cu ft) [72]

Operational stations

As of 2024, two stations are orbiting Earth with life support system in place and fully operational.

NameEntityCrew sizeLaunchedDays in orbit [lower-alpha 3] Days
occupied		Total crew
and visitors		Crewed
visits		Robotic
visits		MassPressurized
volume		Habitable
volume
International Space Station 7 [73] 20 November 1998 [73] [lower-alpha 2] 93038592 [74] 230 [75] 88 [76] 94 [76] 450,000 kg (990,000 lb) [77] 1,005 m3 (35,500 cu ft) [78] 388 m3 (13,700 cu ft)
Tiangong space station 3–6 [79] 29 April 202111079771978100,000 kg (220,000 lb)340 m3 (12,000 cu ft)122 m3 (4,310 cu ft)

Planned and proposed

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

NameEntityProgramCrew sizeLaunch dateRemarks
Lunar Gateway Flag of the United States.svg NASA
ESA logo simple.svg ESA
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg CSA
Flag of Japan.svg JAXA 		Artemis
4
2025 [80] Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars.
Axiom Station Flag of the United States.svg Axiom Space
International Space Station programme
TBD
Late 2026 [81] Eventually will detach from the ISS in the early 2030s and form a private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Russian Orbital Service Station
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
2027 [82] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Starlab Flag of the United States.svg NanoRacks
Flag of the United States.svg Voyager Space
Flag of the United States.svg Lockheed Martin
Flag of the Netherlands.svg Airbus 		Private
4
2028 [83] "Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."
StarMax Flag of the United States.svg Gravitics Private
TBD
2026 [84] "The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Orbital Reef Flag of the United States.svg Blue Origin
Flag of the United States.svg Sierra Space 		Private
10
second half 2020s [85] "Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Bharatiya Antariksha Station [86] Flag of India.svg ISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
~2035 [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station, but will instead build a 20 ton space station of its own. [92] It is intended to be built 5–7 years after the conclusion of the Gaganyaan program. [93]
Lunar Orbital Station [94]
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos
TBD
after 2030 [95]
Haven-1 Flag of the United States.svg Vast Private
4
2025 [96] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration" [97]
LIFE Pathfinder Flag of the United States.svg Sierra Space Private
TBD
2026"Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026". [98]

Cancelled projects

The interior of Skylab B, on display at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum Skylab mockup Smithsonian NASM.jpg
The interior of Skylab B, on display at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum

Most of these stations were canceled due to financial difficulties, or merged into other projects.

NameEntityCrewCancellationRemarks
Manned Orbiting Laboratory 1–7 Flag of the United States.svg USAF 2 [99] 1969 Boilerplate mission launched successfully, wider project cancelled due to excessive costs [100]
Skylab B Flag of the United States.svg NASA3 [101] 1976Constructed, but launch cancelled due to lack of funding. [102] Now a museum piece.
OPS-4 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR3 [103] 1979Constructed, but Almaz program cancelled in favour of uncrewed recon satellites.
Freedom Flag of the United States.svg NASA14–16 [104] 1993Merged to form the basis of the International Space Station.
Mir-2 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg USSR
Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos 		2 [105]
Columbus MTFF ESA logo simple.svg ESA 3
Galaxy Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace Robotic [106] 2007Canceled due to rising costs and ability to ground test key Galaxy subsystems [107]
Sundancer 32011Was under construction, but cancelled in favour of developing B330.
Almaz commercial Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Excalibur Almaz 4+2016Soviet hardware was acquired, but never launched due to lack of funds.
Tiangong-3 Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg CNSA 32017The goals for Tiangong-2 and 3 were merged, and were completed by a single station rather than two separate stations.
OPSEK Flag of Russia.svg Roscosmos 2+2017Some modules such as Nauka were launched and attached to the ISS- but proposals to split these off as a separate station were cancelled, and they instead remain part of the ISS.
B330 Flag of the United States.svg Bigelow Aerospace 32020Test articles were constructed but not flight ready hardware; cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Timeline

Tiangong space stationTiangong 2Tiangong 1Genesis II (space habitat)Genesis IInternational Space StationMirSalyut 7Salyut 6Salyut 5Salyut 4Salyut 3SkylabKosmos 557Salyut 2DOS-2Salyut 1OPS 0855List of space stations
The image above contains clickable links Interactive icon.svg
The image above contains clickable links
Timeline of space stations, sorted by the nations that launched them. Prototype stations are marked*.
  China
  Soviet Union/Russia
  USA
  multiple nations

Size comparison

The image above contains clickable links Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Space station size comparison.svg
The image above contains clickable links Interactive icon.svg
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 The USSR intended to crew these stations with 2 men, however they re-entered the atmosphere before the cosmonauts were launched.
  2. 1 2 Launch date of the initial module. Additional modules for this station were launched later.
  3. ↑ Correct as of 10 May2024

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extravehicular activity</span> Activity done by an astronaut or cosmonaut outside a spacecraft

Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an astronaut in outer space outside a spacecraft. In the absence of a breathable Earthlike atmosphere, the astronaut is completely reliant on a space suit for environmental support. EVA includes spacewalks and lunar or planetary surface exploration. In a stand-up EVA (SEVA), an astronaut stands through an open hatch but does not fully leave the spacecraft. EVAs have been conducted by the Soviet Union/Russia, the United States, Canada, the European Space Agency and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human spaceflight</span> Spaceflight with a crew or passengers

Human spaceflight is spaceflight with a crew or passengers aboard a spacecraft, often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be remotely operated from ground stations on Earth, or autonomously, without any direct human involvement. People trained for spaceflight are called astronauts, cosmonauts (Russian), or taikonauts (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as spaceflight participants or spacefarers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space station</span> Habitat and station in outer space

A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in outer space for an extended period of time and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite. Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies. The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred.

<i>Mir</i> Soviet/Russian space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

<i>Salyut</i> programme Soviet space station programme

The Salyut programme was the first space station programme, undertaken by the Soviet Union. It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations and two crewed military reconnaissance space stations over a period of 15 years, from 1971 to 1986. Two other Salyut launches failed. In one respect, Salyut had the task of carrying out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments, and on the other hand the USSR used this civilian programme as a cover for the highly secretive military Almaz stations, which flew under the Salyut designation. Salyut 1, the first station in the programme, became the world's first crewed space station.

Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Almaz</span> Soviet military space station program

The Almaz program was a highly secret Soviet military space station program, begun in the early 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TKS (spacecraft)</span> Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s

The TKS spacecraft was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station.

Shuttle–<i>Mir</i> program 1993–1998 collaborative Russia–US space program

The Shuttle–Mir program was a collaborative 11-mission space program between Russia and the United States that involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station Mir, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to engage in long-duration expeditions aboard Mir.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space rendezvous</span> Series of orbital maneuvers to bring two spacecraft into the vicinity of each other

A space rendezvous is a set of orbital maneuvers during which two spacecraft, one of which is often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance. Rendezvous requires a precise match of the orbital velocities and position vectors of the two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance through orbital station-keeping. Rendezvous may or may not be followed by docking or berthing, procedures which bring the spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiangong program</span> Space station program of the Peoples Republic of China

The Tiangong program is China's space program to create a modular space station, comparable to Mir. This program is independent and unconnected to any other international space-active countries. The program is part of the China Manned Space Program that began in 1992. The core module of the Tiangong space station, the Tianhe was finally launched on 29 April 2021 marking the start of the Tiangong Space program deployment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orlan space suit</span> Series of space suit models from Russia

The Orlan space suit is a series of semi-rigid one-piece space suit models designed and built by NPP Zvezda. They have been used for spacewalks (EVAs) in the Russian space program, the successor to the Soviet space program, and by space programs of other countries, including NASA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mir Core Module</span> First module of the Soviet/Russian Mir space station

Mir, DOS-7, was the first module of the Soviet/Russian Mir space station complex, in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001. Generally referred to as either the core module or base block, the module was launched on 20 February 1986 on a Proton-K rocket from LC-200/39 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The spacecraft was generally similar in design to the two previous Soviet orbital stations, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, however possessed a revolutionary addition in the form of a multiple docking node at the forward end of the module. This, in addition to the docking port at the rear of the spacecraft, allowed five additional modules to be docked directly to DOS-7, greatly expanding the station's capabilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Space Station programme</span> Ongoing space research program

The International Space Station programme is tied together by a complex set of legal, political and financial agreements between the fifteen nations involved in the project, governing ownership of the various components, rights to crewing and utilisation, and responsibilities for crew rotation and resupply of the International Space Station. It was conceived in September 1993 by the United States and Russia after 1980s plans for separate American (Freedom) and Soviet (Mir-2) space stations failed due to budgetary reasons. These agreements tie together the five space agencies and their respective International Space Station programmes and govern how they interact with each other on a daily basis to maintain station operations, from traffic control of spacecraft to and from the station, to utilisation of space and crew time. In March 2010, the International Space Station Program Managers from each of the five partner agencies were presented with Aviation Week's Laureate Award in the Space category, and the ISS programme was awarded the 2009 Collier Trophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex</span> Proposed Russian space station

The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex was a 2009–2017 proposed third-generation Russian modular space station for low Earth orbit. The concept was to use OPSEK to assemble components of crewed interplanetary spacecraft destined for the Moon, Mars, and possibly Saturn. The returning crew could also recover on the station before landing on Earth. Thus, OPSEK could form part of a future network of stations supporting crewed exploration of the Solar System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Docking and berthing of spacecraft</span> Joining of two or more space vehicles

Docking and berthing of spacecraft is the joining of two space vehicles. This connection can be temporary, or partially permanent such as for space station modules.

<i>Tianhe</i> core module Module of the Tiangong space station

Tianhe, officially the Tianhe core module, is the first module to launch of the Tiangong space station. It was launched into orbit on 29 April 2021, as the first launch of the final phase of Tiangong program, part of the China Manned Space Program.

References

  1. ↑ Clark, Stephen. "Chinese astronaut launch breaks record for most people in orbit – Spaceflight Now" . Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  2. ↑ Chang, Kenneth; Nechepurenko, Ivan (2022-07-26). "Russia Says It Will Quit the International Space Station After 2024". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-07-26.
  3. ↑ "The Station: Russian Space History". PBS. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  4. 1 2 Harland, David Michael (2005). The Story Of Space Station Mir. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 351. ISBN   978-0-387-73977-9.
  5. ↑ "Space Stations". ThinkQuest. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  6. 1 2 3 "Salyut 1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
  7. ↑ Tony Long (19 April 2011). "April 19, 1971: Soviets Put First Space Station Into Orbit". Wired.
  8. ↑ "Space Station". World Almanac Education Group Inc. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  9. 1 2 3 Vic Stathopoulos. "The first Space Station - Salyut 1". aerospaceguide.net. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
  10. ↑ Gibbons, John H. (2008). Salyut: Soviet steps toward permanent human presence in space. DIANE Publishing. p. 15. ISBN   978-1-4289-2401-7.
  11. ↑ "Salyut 1". Archived from the original on December 11, 2016. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  12. ↑ Grujica S. Ivanovich (2008). Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 329. Bibcode:2008saly.book.....I. ISBN   978-0-387-73973-1.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Zimmerman, Robert (2003). Leaving Earth. Washington, DC, United States: Joseph Henry Press. p.  84. ISBN   978-0-309-08548-9.
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  15. 1 2 "Salyut". Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  16. ↑ "Saylut 2". NASA. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 "Almaz". Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
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  24. 1 2 Stewart Taggart (22 March 2001). "The Day the Sky(lab) Fell". Wired. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
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  26. ↑ "Skylab 30 Years Later". Space Daily. 11 November 2003.
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  28. ↑ Oberg, Jame (1992). "Skylab's Untimely Fate". Air & Space. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  29. ↑ "BBC – Solar System – Skylab (pictures, video, facts & news)". BBC. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
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  31. ↑ Furniss, Tim (2003). A History of Space Exploration: And Its Future... Lyons Press. p. 200. ISBN   978-1-58574-650-7.
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  33. ↑ "Largest Objects to Reenter". Aerospace Corporation. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
  34. 1 2 3 "Resident Crews of Salyut 3". spacefacts.de. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  35. ↑ "Skylab". University of Oregon. Retrieved 31 January 2012. (Lecture at the University of Oregon, Salyut 3 is mentioned later in the lecture)
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  44. 1 2 3 4 "Salyut 5". Aerospaceguide. Archived from the original on 26 May 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  45. 1 2 3 Grujica S. Ivanovich (2008). Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 358. Bibcode:2008saly.book.....I. ISBN   978-0-387-73973-1.
  46. 1 2 "Salyut 6". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  47. ↑ Robert Christy. "The DOS Space Stations: Expedition 5 (1981) and The End". Zarya. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  48. 1 2 3 4 "Salyut 6". Aerospaceguide. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
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