Mass vaccination

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Mass vaccination is a public policy effort to vaccinate a large number of people, possibly the entire population of the world or of a country or region, within a short period of time. This policy may be directed during a pandemic, when there is a localized outbreak or scare of a disease for which a vaccine exists, or when a new vaccine is invented.

Contents

Under normal circumstances, vaccines are provided as part of an individual's medical care starting from birth and given as part of routine checkups. But there are times when there is a need to quickly vaccinate the population at large and provide easy access to the service. When this occurs, temporary clinics may be established around communities that can efficiently handle the many people within at once.

Challenges of a mass vaccination effort include vaccine supply, logistics, storage, finding vaccinators and other necessary staff, vaccine safety and public outreach. [1]

Historic mass vaccinations

Smallpox

Early successes in eradication (prior to 1950)

In 1947, after a man traveled from Mexico to New York City and developed smallpox, Dr. Israel Weinstein announced to the residents of New York the need to get vaccinated. Vaccine clinics were established throughout the city and within less than a month, 6,350,000 residents were vaccinated. [1] This was enabled by improvements in vaccine production and storage. Prior to new developments, transportation represented a major issue and hindered mass vaccinations. [2] Because smallpox vaccination requires a live virus, it originally required a sample to be transferred from person-to-person or animal-to-person directly. [2] The creation of a liquid vaccine stored in capillary tubes marked a major advancement for the smallpox vaccine. [3] This method involved the use of glycerol as a preservative and was significant for storage and transportation. [3] In addition to these benefits, it enabled mass production through the use of animals, and ensured long term viability at temperatures below freezing. [3] However, this method was not sufficient enough to enable widespread vaccination in tropical regions of the world, and thus was largely restricted to temperate countries. [3] Compulsory vaccinations were used throughout the beginning of the 20th century in a most of these countries, which led to the decline of smallpox. [3] For countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and some other European countries, outbreaks were quickly shut down by strong public health policies. [3] Soon, the more deadly Variola Major smallpox variant steadily declined, and endemics were only brought on by travelers from countries that lacked control over smallpox outbreaks. [3] It's important to note that the milder Variola Minor smallpox variant remained prevalent until the mid-20th century, as it often didn't warrant hospital visits or was misdiagnosed. [3] The success of health policies in controlling and eliminating smallpox by 1950s in many countries led some to believe that the world eradication of smallpox would be possible. [3]

Interest in worldwide eradication (1950-1959)

The creation of a heat stable, freeze-dried vaccine occurred in the 1950s. [2] Further improvements in freeze-drying technology allowed for the mass production of the vaccine at a commercial level. [3] The Health Assembly, a group within the World Health organization (WHO), began discussing the possibility of eliminating smallpox between 1950 and 1955. [3] The idea was ultimately rejected, as many viewed it an impossible task to take on. In 1958, a professor from the USSR, acting as a Health Assembly delegate, once again pushed the idea of smallpox being an issue for all countries, whether or not endemics are still occurring. [3] He presented a report to the Eleventh World Health Assembly, which argued that world eradication of the disease is possible, as shown by the success of countries that managed to eliminate it through health policy. [3] This was particularly significant as the professor, Viktor Zhdanov, had come to the conclusion on his own, without knowledge of arguments from previous World Health Assemblies. In this Zhdanov Report, he used the USSR as an example, arguing that the success of mandatory vaccinations throughout his country proves that it's possible to eliminate it in any country. [3] Zhdanov offered the support of the USSR, and backed the legitimacy of the report through the donation of millions of vaccines and previous offers of support to central-Asian countries. [3] The method of eradication would that was proposed involved the use of the newly developed freeze-dried vaccinations and mandatory vaccination. [3] Surveillance containment programs was also mentioned, which actually came to dominate in the later years of the eradication campaign. [3] Over the course of the next year, resolutions coordinating the start of the program, as well as to ensure the success of it, were made. [3] During the Twelve World Health Assembly in 1959, the proposal of an eradication campaign for smallpox was voted for successfully. [3]

Smallpox eradication program (1960-1966)

The eradication of smallpox seemed to be easier and less costly than other previously eradicated diseases. [3] Smallpox had no vectors, as humans were the only reservoirs carrying the disease. Furthermore, the elimination of the disease would be mostly on mass vaccination and did not require vector control. [3] Directed by Donald Henderson, this first effort involved the use of mass vaccinations with a goal to have 80% of every country's population immunized. [2] Although the program was brought forth by WHO, implementation would largely depend on individual governments. WHO would be responsible for supporting the programs through vaccine production, and training of staff. [3] Each country would be required to cover most of the costs and actual functions of the program. A lack of universal commitment from countries hindered this campaign allowing smallpox to remain prevalent almost a decade later. [4] This was particularly a problem in developing countries. [2] The WHO was not designed to provide considerable material support and close collaboration between countries on a wide scale. [3] Over the first few years of the program's initiation, a lack of donations of vaccines and money hindered the success of the program. [3] The WHO created the Expert Committee on Smallpox in 1964 due to the lack of progress. A report was released giving a more clear strategy to be implemented, in the form of different phases. [3] Based on outbreaks that occurred in India in regions that claimed to have more than 80% vaccination rates, the committee determined that 100% of the population would need to be vaccinated in the first mass vaccination phase. After this, they would focus on stopping subsequent cases and investigating them. [3] This was not well received during the Seventeenth World Health Assembly, in which many express doubts over the success especially with extreme vaccine shortages following a lack of donations. [3] It wasn't until 1965 that the USA increased commitment to the cause, yet not out of interest but because they were already starting a measles eradication campaign and felt this could be added on. [3] This along with continued support from the USSR led the WHO to develop an intensified program for smallpox eradication, however many members still lacked confidence in this new programs success. [3]

Intensified smallpox eradication program (1967-1980)

From 1967, the Intensified Smallpox Program now called for surveillance reporting and investigation in addition to mass vaccination. [3] Teams were directed to find alternative or unique solutions in their regions. [5] In the years following the initiation of this plan, the WHO saw an increase in qualified volunteers, contributions from countries and participation in their campaign. [3] They worked on increasing training of staff and publicizing the program worldwide. Improvements in procedures and technology had a significant effect on advancing the program. [3] Particularly, the invention of the bifurcated needle made administration of vaccines in the field more practical than the previously used jet-injectors. [3] The number of outbreaks, instead of the percent of population vaccinated, became the new focus. [3] By 1973, smallpox only remained a problem in five countries. Improved methods of surveillance and containment, as well as a large increase in support, was a critical part of finally eradicating smallpox. [3] The regions would contain the spread out smallpox through vaccinating anyone exposed to an infected person; this was the method of ring vaccination. [6] It would not be until May 8, 1980, during the World Health Assembly that smallpox was announced as officially eradicated. [7]

Criticism of mass vaccination

Vaccination policies were not met without resistance, as countries that had mandatory vaccination policies saw a rise in antivaccination movements. [3] In Brazil, compulsory vaccination was met with riots. [3] The lack of control led to large outbreaks and many deaths. [3] Other countries had more success in vaccination, which led to Variola Minor replacing Variola Major as the cause of smallpox outbreaks in these countries. [3] Antivaccinationists rejected vaccination policy more, as this more mild form was not seen as significant. [3] This was particularly an issue in the United States as only some states had compulsory vaccination, while others banned or lacked laws for it. [3]

Polio

A young Indian girl receiving a dose of oral polio vaccine by a trained healthcare worker. Oral Polio Vaccine.jpg
A young Indian girl receiving a dose of oral polio vaccine by a trained healthcare worker.

Poliomyelitis is a disease which causes lower body paralysis through the damage of motor neurons caused by three strains of the poliovirus. [8] Only 1% of polio cases actually result in paralysis. [8] In 1916, the United States experienced a polio epidemic which paralyzed over 27,000 people and lead to 6,000 deaths. [8] These outbreaks gradually became worse and worse as it spread throughout the Americas and to Europe. [8] Jonas Salk developed the first inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in 1953 which was tested in a clinical trial that enrolled 1.6 million children in Canada, Finland and the United States. [8] With the distribution of Salk's vaccine, cases decreased from 13.9 to 0.8 cases per 100,000 in a period of only 7 years from 1954 to 1961. [8] By 1956, Albert Sabin had created the live-attenuated vaccine also known as the oral polio vaccine (OPV) which contained three types of wild polio strains. [8] After almost two decades in 1972, Sabin decided to donate his vaccine strains to the World Health Organization (WHO) which greatly increased the distribution and accessibility of the vaccine across the world. [8]

In the years following the development of the vaccines from 1977 to 1995, children who had been fully vaccinated with all three doses of OPV had risen from 5% to 80%. [8] In 1988, the World Health Assembly decided to make efforts to completely eradicate polio by the year 2000 with a large amount of the progress occurring before the target date. [9] This effort was titled the Global Polio Eradication Initiative and has seen wild success with a decrease in 99% of cases worldwide by 2018. [10] When the global campaign began in 1988, there were over 125 polio-endemic countries compared to only 20 by the year 2000. [9] Wealthier countries with better infrastructure were able to use more resources and introduce better health strategies to achieve herd immunity early on. [9] The WHO Region of the Americas declared themselves to be polio free in 1994. [10] Following this enormous achievement, other WHO regions quickly followed with the Western Pacific Region declared polio free in 2000, the European Region in 2002 and South-East Asia Region in 2014. [10]

Mass vaccination strategies such as National Immunization Days were key to the success of the oral polio vaccine (OPV). [11] In South America, transmission rates severely declined in the mid-1980s following the invention and widespread use of the OPV. [11] With such an incredibly high amount of vaccinations within a short time frame, the overall incidence of Polio was decreased. [11] Other countries such as India, were able to vaccinate over 120 million children in large scale vaccination days which became a regular occurrence. [11]

Polio campaigns in America

Several famous Americans helped pave the way for the acceptance of the polio vaccine in the United States. Franklin D. Roosevelt, one of the most famous polio patients in the world, created the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis in 1938 which eventually became known as March of Dimes. [12] The March of Dimes funded a large portion of the polio research all throughout the epidemic and eventually resulted in the development of the vaccine by Jonas Salk. [12] Following the years after its invention and distribution, polio cases decreased from tens of thousands to only a handful per year. [12] With the help of Elvis Presley, who took the vaccine publicly, the acceptance of the polio vaccine increased even further. [13] This act embodied three of the most important pillars of a behavioral change campaign: social influence, social norms and examples. [14] Elvis Presley used his social influence to normalize getting the polio vaccine, which increased vaccination rates among American youth to over 80% in just under 6 months. [14] These types campaigns were the heart of the mass vaccination efforts in America. [14]

Barriers to eradication

Despite the global efforts to vaccinate and eradicate polio, the virus still causes outbreaks every year. [15] As of 2021, only wild polio virus type 1(WPV1) affects the world and are localized in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [15] The circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) caused outbreaks in 32 countries in 2020. [15] The cVDPV is a result of live oral poliovirus vaccine becoming infectious after extended circulation. [15] This prompted an update to the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) Strategy for the years 2022–2026. [15] With the most recent update in August 2020, the WHO African Region was declared polio free leaving only one of the six WHO regions with polio. [15] The GPEI's new initiatives focused on eradicating the WPV1 in both Afghanistan and Pakistan while also combating the new outbreaks of cVDPV. [15] The difficulty arises when the world must not only eliminate the wild type polio virus but also the vaccine-derived form, making eradication even more complex. [16] While both the live and inactivated polio vaccines were wildly successful in saving the world from the historic endemic, there still are drawbacks with each of the vaccines. [16] The OPV vaccine was reverted to an infectious strain which led to the rise of the cVDPV. [16] While the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) protected the host, it was not strong enough to generate intestinal mucosa immunity and therefore did not prevent the transmission of the virus. [16] These weaknesses suggest that more innovative vaccines or a combination of the two is needed to completely eradicate polio. [16]

Swine flu vaccination

In 1918, the deadly H1N1 influenza virus which infected approximately 500 million people around the world and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million people (3% to 5% of the world population). [17] New York City had created two major mass immunization programs, the first was the smallpox immunization program initiated in 1947 and the second was the swine flu influenza program in 1976. [11]

For the first mass immunization campaign in 1947, the New York City Department of Health maintained the outbreak within a period of 29 days and vaccinated 6.35 million people successfully. [11] Weinstein and colleagues established vaccination clinics at many locations such as at the Department of Health's 125 Worth Street headquarters, at the 21 district health centers, 60 child health clinics, and 13 municipal hospitals in order to accommodate for the high demand of people requesting for a vaccination. [11] The smallpox vaccination effort was announced to be officially terminated on May 3, 1947. [11] In which case, it was rather surprising to see that the second mass immunization campaign in 1976, which was a national immunization effort, was only able to accomplish vaccinating 639,000 against swine influenza over a period of 60 days. [11] It was also noted that in 1976, the mass swine flu vaccination programme was discontinued after 362 cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome were identified among 45 million vaccinated people. [11] The vast differences between the number of people vaccinated in 1947 versus 1976, despite the outbreaks, are reflected mainly by the public's skeptical perception of the minimal severity and low threat of swine flu. [11]

Swine flu, also known as H1N1 influenza A virus, is a type of infectious respiratory disease that has caused high economical and medical burden every year around the world. [18] There are important lessons to be learned from the recent 'Swine Flu' pandemic. Improving techniques are necessary in trying to decrease the spread of infection-both in the community and within our hospitals would mean improving infection control and hygiene, and the use of masks, alcohol hand rubs and so on. [19]

A worldwide study was conducted which comprehensively analyzed adamantanes resistance in H1N1 influenza viruses from 1918 to 2019 and showed 77.32% H1N1 influenza variants demonstrating resistance to adamantanes. [18] This study emphasizes the importance of global surveillance, especially in many third-world countries, as well as the evolution of drug-resistant H1N1 influenza variants in an effort to prevent another pandemic. [18]

Contemporary usage

COVID-19

The introduction of multiple COVID-19 vaccines throughout the pandemic such as Pfizer, Moderna, Johnson and Johnson, and the newly approved Novavax vaccine have helped allow large amounts of the population to get vaccinated.[ citation needed ]

When COVID-19 was identified in December 2019 there were no vaccines readily available to vaccinate mass populations. [20] By December 2020, the Pfizer vaccine was the first to receive emergency use approval by the Food and Drug Administration. [20] Vaccines under normal circumstances can take up to 10–15 years to be made and approved. [20] Without worldwide collaboration, funding for research, and rigorous guidelines for clinical trials there would not have been a quickly developed vaccine. [20]

COVID-19 Vaccines COVID-19 vaccines (2021) D.jpg
COVID-19 Vaccines

The type of vaccines that are available are messenger RNA, vector, and protein subunit. messenger RNA vaccines work by giving cells specific instructions to make the S protein found on the surface of the COVID-19 virus. [21] It does not infect recipients of the vaccine with the virus but allows for the body to detect and fight the COVID-19 virus. [21] Both Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines fall in to the messenger RNA category. [21] Vector vaccines also deliver instructions on how to make the S protein found on the surface of the virus. [21] It also does not cause the recipient to become infected with the virus after vaccination. [21] The Johnson & Johnson vaccine falls into the vector category. [21] Lastly the subunit vaccine only contains a part of the virus needed to create an immune response. [21] The S protein is the harmless subunit that will allow for an immune response when the COVID-19 virus is detected. [21] The Novavax vaccine falls into the subunit protein category. [21]

When vaccinating large populations an action plan must be created to organize which groups will receive the vaccination first. [22] The California Department of Public Health created an action plan to vaccinate by population group. [22] First immunocompromised groups, second unvaccinated or not fully vaccinated, third under 12 populations, fourth boosters for those 65 and older, and lastly boosters for ages 12–64. [22]

A mass vaccination site at a stadium in Salisbury, Maryland Salisbury Mass Vaccination Site - 51053268081.jpg
A mass vaccination site at a stadium in Salisbury, Maryland

As well as mass vaccination centers being established at many locations, such as stadiums led to many people getting vaccinated. [23]

In the United States, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell offered the league's 30 stadiums as mass vaccination sites. [24] As of April 2021, NFL stadiums have administered more than 2 million doses. [25] By December 2021, more than 100,000 people had received vaccinations at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. [26]

Pharmacist have also played an important role in getting mass populations vaccinated since they are a skilled and trained workforce able to help increase vaccination rates. [27] Many people can turn to drug or convivence stores to get vaccinated since it can be a quick and easy place to access. [28] Pharmacies have played a large roll in mass vaccination now more than ever due to the pandemic. [28] Some states prior to the pandemic did not allow pharmacist to vaccinate or administer flu vaccines. [28] Now, pharmacies are contracting with state and federal governments since they have become key players in vaccinations. [28] Without the involvement of pharmacies mass vaccination would be difficult to achieve. [28] in most communities 90% of people live within five miles of a pharmacy. [28] Pharmacist can oftentimes be the quickest access to a healthcare provider, making it a desirable option for the public to come and get vaccinated. [28]

Not only have pharmacist been involved in COVID-19 vaccinations but pharmacy technicians as well. [29] Pharmacy technicians have helped alleviate the workload on pharmacist with the large increase in demand for vaccinations. [29] They also can create more opportunities to interact with people who are hesitant in getting the COVID-19 vaccines. [29] Pharmacy technicians can support pharmacist which will allow more vaccination services to be accommodated efficiently and safety. [29] These efforts will allow for an increase in vaccinations and help vaccinate large groups at a time. [29]

During the pandemic pharmacist have had a fundamental roll in sharing information about COVID-19 vaccines. [30] Pharmacist are a quick resource for information and can help relieve some common concerns about reactions or misinformation to the vaccines. [30] They are also advocates for getting vaccinated since they are educators and vaccine administrators. [30] Sharing information to the public about COVID-19 vaccines can help increase vaccinations rates. [30] Since pharmacist are easily accessible in the community setting they can help motivate or encourage getting vaccinated helping decrease preventable infections or diseases such as COVID-19. [30]

Mass vaccination of COVID-19 vaccines is important to help stop the spread of the coronavirus and eventually end the pandemic. [31] Individual governments have been allocating billions of dollars to increase production of vaccines to help with the current global manufacturing need of vaccines. [31] Countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia were able to receive many vaccines early on due to them being wealthier countries. [31] They were able to receive many doses enough to vaccinate their own countries but this left other lower-income countries with limited supply of the vaccines. [31] With some countries receiving more vaccines than others this leads to inequitable distribution and can increase the risk of new outbreaks. [31] Without proper global vaccine distribution it will make it more difficult to end the pandemic and allow for mass vaccination as a global effort. [31] Amid the new strains of the coronavirus such as the omicron variant, scientist and healthcare officials have raised concern about reduced effectiveness of available vaccines. [31] In response to a concern about vaccines having reduced effectiveness countries have encouraged booster shots for most of their population. [31] The World Health Organization would like to prioritize unvaccinated people over booster doses so more of the population will have received their initial dose. [31]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccination</span> Administration of a vaccine to protect against disease

Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating the body's adaptive immunity, they help prevent sickness from an infectious disease. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. Herd immunity protects those who may be immunocompromised and cannot get a vaccine because even a weakened version would harm them. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the elimination of diseases such as polio and tetanus from much of the world. However, some diseases, such as measles outbreaks in America, have seen rising cases due to relatively low vaccination rates in the 2010s – attributed, in part, to vaccine hesitancy. According to the World Health Organization, vaccination prevents 3.5–5 million deaths per year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine</span> Pathogen-derived preparation that provides acquired immunity to an infectious disease

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize further and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polio vaccine</span> Vaccine to prevent poliomyelitis

Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 33 in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunization</span> Process by which an individuals immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent

Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza vaccine</span> Vaccine against influenza

Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses. New versions of the vaccines are developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. Immunized workers who do catch the flu return to work half a day sooner on average. Vaccine effectiveness in those over 65 years old remains uncertain due to a lack of high-quality research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulse Polio</span> Indian governmental immunisation campaign

Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India to eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against the polio virus. The project fights polio through a large-scale, pulse vaccination programme and monitoring for poliomyelitis cases.

The Hong Kong flu, also known as the 1968 flu pandemic, was a flu pandemic whose outbreak in 1968 and 1969 killed between one and four million people globally. It is among the deadliest pandemics in history, and was caused by an H3N2 strain of the influenza A virus. The virus was descended from H2N2 through antigenic shift, a genetic process in which genes from multiple subtypes are reassorted to form a new virus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swine influenza</span> Infection caused by influenza viruses endemic to pigs

Swine influenza is an infection caused by any of several types of swine influenza viruses. Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) refers to any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs. As of 2009, identified SIV strains include influenza C and the subtypes of influenza A known as H1N1, H1N2, H2N1, H3N1, H3N2, and H2N3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine hesitancy</span> Reluctance or refusal to be vaccinated or have ones children vaccinated

Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal, of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services and supporting evidence. The term covers refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain about their use, or using certain vaccines but not others. The scientific consensus that vaccines are generally safe and effective is overwhelming. Vaccine hesitancy often results in disease outbreaks and deaths from vaccine-preventable diseases. Therefore, the World Health Organization characterizes vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten global health threats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza A virus subtype H1N1</span> Subtype of Influenza A virus

In virology, influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (A/H1N1) is a subtype of influenza A virus. Major outbreaks of H1N1 strains in humans include the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, the 1977 Russian flu pandemic and the 2009 swine flu pandemic. It is an orthomyxovirus that contains the glycoproteins hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), antigens whose subtypes are used to classify the strains of the virus as H1N1, H1N2 etc. Hemagglutinin causes red blood cells to clump together and binds the virus to the infected cell. Neuraminidase is a type of glycoside hydrolase enzyme which helps to move the virus particles through the infected cell and assist in budding from the host cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza pandemic</span> Pandemic involving influenza

An influenza pandemic is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads across a large region and infects a large proportion of the population. There have been six major influenza epidemics in the last 140 years, with the 1918 flu pandemic being the most severe; this is estimated to have been responsible for the deaths of 50–100 million people. The most recent, the 2009 swine flu pandemic, resulted in under 300,000 deaths and is considered relatively mild. These pandemics occur irregularly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polio eradication</span> Effort to permanently eliminate all cases of poliomyelitis infection

Polio eradication, the permanent global cessation of circulation of the poliovirus and hence elimination of the poliomyelitis (polio) it causes, is the aim of a multinational public health effort begun in 1988, led by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the Rotary Foundation. These organizations, along with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and The Gates Foundation, have spearheaded the campaign through the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI). Successful eradication of infectious diseases has been achieved twice before, with smallpox in humans and rinderpest in ruminants.

A vaccination policy is a health policy adopted in order to prevent the spread of infectious disease. These policies are generally put into place by State or local governments, but may also be set by private facilities, such as workplaces or schools. Many policies have been developed and implemented since vaccines were first made widely available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pandemrix</span> Flu vaccine

Pandemrix is an influenza vaccine for influenza pandemics, such as the 2009 flu pandemic. The vaccine was developed by GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and patented in September 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1976 swine flu outbreak</span> 1976 H1N1 swine influenza outbreak at Fort Dix

In 1976, an outbreak of the swine flu, influenza A virus subtype H1N1 at Fort Dix, New Jersey caused one death, hospitalized 13, and led to a mass immunization program. After the program began, the vaccine was associated with an increase in reports of Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), which can cause paralysis, respiratory arrest, and death. The immunization program was ended after approximately 25% of the population of the United States had been administered the vaccine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine</span> Protection against the H1N1/09 virus

The 2009 swine flu pandemic vaccines were influenza vaccines developed to protect against the pandemic H1N1/09 virus. These vaccines either contained inactivated (killed) influenza virus, or weakened live virus that could not cause influenza. The killed virus was injected, while the live virus was given as a nasal spray. Both these types of vaccine were produced by growing the virus in chicken eggs. Around three billion doses were produced, with delivery in November 2009.

Pakistan is one of the two remaining countries in the world where poliomyelitis (polio) is still categorized as an endemic viral infection, the other one being Afghanistan. As of the March 2023, there has been 1 documented case in Pakistan. There were 20 documented cases in Pakistan in 2022, 1 in 2021, and 84 in 2020. The total count of wild poliovirus cases in Pakistan in 2019 was 147.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Targeted immunization strategies</span>

Targeted immunization strategies are approaches designed to increase the immunization level of populations and decrease the chances of epidemic outbreaks. Though often in regards to use in healthcare practices and the administration of vaccines to prevent biological epidemic outbreaks, these strategies refer in general to immunization schemes in complex networks, biological, social or artificial in nature. Identification of at-risk groups and individuals with higher odds of spreading the disease often plays an important role in these strategies, since targeted immunization in high-risk groups is necessary for effective eradication efforts and has a higher return on investment than immunizing larger but lower-risk groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1957–1958 influenza pandemic</span> Pandemic of influenza virus (H2N2)

The 1957–1958 Asian flu pandemic was a global pandemic of influenza A virus subtype H2N2 that originated in Guizhou in Southern China. The number of excess deaths caused by the pandemic is estimated to be 1–4 million around the world, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history. A decade later, a reassorted viral strain H3N2 further caused the Hong Kong flu pandemic (1968–1969).

Live recombinant vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity through the use of live bacteria or viruses that are genetically modified. These live pathogens are biologically engineered to express exogenous antigens in the cytoplasm of target cells, triggering immune responses as a result. This form of vaccine combines the beneficial features of attenuated and recombinant vaccines, providing the preparation with attenuated vaccines’ long-lasting immunity and recombinant vaccines’ genetically engineered precision and safety.

References

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  5. ↑ Bhattacharya S (October 2008). "The World Health Organization and global smallpox eradication". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 62 (10): 909–912. doi:10.1136/jech.2006.055590. PMC   2602749 . PMID   18791049.
  6. ↑ "Disease Eradication". cpp-hov.netlify.app. Retrieved 2022-08-01.
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