Mate choice copying

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The fruit fly is one of the species in which females display mate-choice copying Harilik aadikakarbes ,Drosophila melanogaster.jpg
The fruit fly is one of the species in which females display mate-choice copying

Mate-choice copying, or non-independent mate choice, occurs when a female of an animal species copies another fellow female's mate choice. [1] In other words, non-independent mate-choice is when a female's sexual preferences get socially inclined toward those of its fellow female. [1] This behavior is speculated to be one of the driving forces of sexual selection and the evolution of male traits. [1] It is also hypothesized that mate-choice copying can induce speciation due to the selective pressure for certain, preferred male qualities. [2] Moreover, mate-choice copying is one form of social learning in which animals behave differently depending on what they observe in their surrounding environment. [3] In other words, the animals tend to process the social stimuli they receive by observing the behavior of their conspecifics and execute a similar behavior to what they observed. [4] Mate choice copying has been found in a wide variety of different species, including (but not limited to): invertebrates, like the common fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster); [5] [6] fish, such as guppies ( Poecilia reticulata ) [7] and ocellated wrasse; [1] birds, like the black grouse; [8] and mammals, such as the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) [9] and humans. [10] Most studies have focused on females, but male mate copying has been also found in sailfin mollies (Poecilia latipinna) [11] and humans. [10]

Contents

Mechanism

Visual copying

Female guppies tend to exhibit mate-choice copying by employing visual observation of a demonstrator female's mate choice. FemaleGuppy2.jpg
Female guppies tend to exhibit mate-choice copying by employing visual observation of a demonstrator female's mate choice.

Mate-choice copying requires a highly developed form of social recognition by which the observer (i.e. copier) female recognizes the demonstrator (i.e. chooser) female when mating with a target male and later recognizes the target male to mate with it. [4] Though it might seem simple, observer females actually do not copy the choice of any haphazard, demonstrator female; instead, they copy based on their perception of the demonstrator female's quality. [4] In guppies (Poecilia reticulata) for instance, females are more likely to copy the mate choice of a larger sized fish than to copy the mate choice of a fish of the same or a smaller size. [12] Besides immediate copying based on visual cues, it has been hypothesized that observer females tend to - later on - choose other males with the same qualities as that of the target male the demonstrator mated with. [4] However, it is not known whether this generalization of preference holds true or the observer's inability to discriminate the target male from other similar-looking males accounts for the behavior. [4] Interestingly, in some instances, an observer female tend to copy a demonstrator's female choice only in the same geographical region (i.e. location) it has observed the demonstrator sexually interact with a target male; if the observer female is presented with the same target male in a different location, there is a less likelihood that the observer would execute the same mate choice. [13]

Olfactory copying

Naive, female Norway rats employ olfactory cueing to copy the mate choice of experienced females. Brown rat near the River Kennet, Marlborough - geograph.org.uk - 607896.jpg
Naive, female Norway rats employ olfactory cueing to copy the mate choice of experienced females.

In some cases, a direct, visual observation of the sexual interaction between the demonstrator and the target is not necessary; female rodents, for instance, use olfactory stimuli as a reference to whether the target male has been chosen by other females or not. [4] A female rodent may choose to mate with a target male if there is a smell of other females associated with this male’s urine, as an indication that it has been mated with by other fellow females. [4]

Neurobiology

As mentioned earlier, mate choice copying is a developed form of social recognition that requires highly efficient cognitive processes for the observer female to be able to not only identify the demonstrator female and the target male but also execute a suitable behavior (i.e. copying) in response to the observed stimulus. [4] In other words, the execution of mate choice copying is an intricate behavior that most likely involves a coordinated function between the endocrine system, the digestive system, the nervous system, and the reproductive system. [4] In addition to sex hormones, neurotransmitters such as oxytocin (OT) and arginine-vasopressin (AVP) are involved in mediating social recognition of demonstrator and target as well in sexual approach to target males. [4] OT has proven to be of a particular importance to the mediation of mate-choice copying as OT gene-knockout female mice have failed to recognize the demonstrator female and the target male. [4] Moreover, the OT gene-knockout mice have showed a significantly decreased, sexual interest in males even if these males have been previously observed mating with demonstrator females. [4] Such results are likely to be attributed to OT's indispensable role in stimulating sexual arousal and feelings of trust in the female mice; absence of OT has hindered the knockout female mice from trusting the demonstrator female's mating choice, and from experiencing a general sexual attraction to males. [4] Further research has also shown that OT itself is regulated by estrogen and testosterone as a part of the estrous cycles that female mice go through. [4]

Evolutionary origin

Benefits

Mate-choice copying has evolved to eliminate the possible costs—including time and energy —of mate-choice. [14] The fact that mate-choice copying exists in various species is due to the differential abilities of females in choosing a desirable male with good quality genes. [15] In other words, not all females have the same capability of taking good decisions when it comes to mate-choice. [15] Therefore, mate-choice copying as a behavior has evolved through social learning to educate those females—including naive ones—to choose a desirable male, allowing only good quality genes to be propagated in the population over time. [4] [15] For instance, naïve female mice that had just entered the estrus cycle for their first time might choose a male if its urine is associated with the smell of other, older females in the estrus cycle. [4] Therefore, mate-choice copying reduces the error frequency in mate-choice among inexperienced females, guaranteeing an increased relative fitness for the copying females. [15] Another example can be seen in black grouse, Tetrao tetrix, where the naive females in their first breeding season tend to mate later than experienced females so that the former can copy the choice of the latter. [15]

Mate-choice copying also becomes effective when the females are constrained by time (i.e. if the breeding season is soon to end) in which case females tend to copy each other's choice to avoid going through the time-consuming choice process that might cost them not being able to mate at all. [15] Mate-choice copying is also effective at eliminating the stress in females of monogamous species such as Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) that would have otherwise had to mate with a less-desirable, poor-quality male. [16] Another hypothesis that have been also proposed is that Game theory applies to the mate-choice copying behavior where females choose whether to be an observer or a demonstrator based on the abundance of each in the population. [15] A female might tend to become an observer in a population where demonstrators are more abundant to increase its chances of having access to a high-quality male and vice versa. [15]

In some instances as in sailfin molly, it is the males of a species that display mate-choice copying. Poecilia latipinna.jpg
In some instances as in sailfin molly, it is the males of a species that display mate-choice copying.

Despite the fact that mate-choice copying, in theory, reduces the relative fitness of those males that are not chosen, it reduces their risks of injury and possible death of the aggressive courtship behaviors that they would have otherwise participated in with the chosen, high-quality males. [14] Some evidence have shown that in species where females display cryptic mate choice, males tend to display the reverse of mate choice copying to avoid mating with females that have been visually observed mating with higher-quality, rival males. [4] Such a mate choice behavior is displayed by a male mainly to avoid wasting its energy in having a sexual interaction that might not necessarily increase its relative fitness if the female chose the sperms of the rival to fertilize its eggs. [4] There are also some instances where the males of a certain species get to be the choosier sex due to their higher parental investment in the offspring than females; an example where males practice mate-choice copying would be sailfin mollies (Poecilia latipinna). [11]

Costs

There has not been various evidence on the fitness costs of mate choice copying; however, it has been suggested that depending solely on social cues to choose a potential mate is not always advantageous. It, in fact, might in some cases lead to mating with an unfit, poor-quality male that has been chosen maladaptively by demonstrator females. [4] Moreover, in species where males display mate-choice copying such as Atlantic mollies (Poecilia mexicana), the demonstrator male might employ what is known as the Deception Hypothesis in which the demonstrator male pretends to mate with an undesirable female to deceive the observer male into choosing this female. [17] Such a deceitful behavior is facilitated by the demonstrator's ability to change its behavior when it senses the presence of the observer as well as the observer's inability to recognize the behavior of the demonstrator as deceitful. [17] Consequently, the observer male mates with an undesirable, poor-quality female, negatively affecting the survival of the observer male's offspring and, in turn, its own relative fitness. [17]

Alternative hypotheses

Researchers have suggested other, alternative hypotheses that might explain as to why females might display nonindependent mate choice; these hypotheses include: Kin-associated genetic preferences, common environmental effects, consexual cueing, and associative learning. [13]

Kin-associated genetic preferences

The proponents of this hypothesis argue that females tend to choose to mate with the same target male due to these females' shared innate preferences for the traits the target male holds. [13] In other words, the genetic similarity of these females due to kinship is reflected in their mate choice behavior that other researchers can view as a mere act of social facilitation. [13]

Common environmental effects

Some females tend to have the same mate choice due to abiotic factors rather than mate-choice copying. [13] For instance, the distribution of food resources might limit the foraging ability of females to explore potential mates in farther regions; therefore, all females in such a confined region might end up mating with the same male because it holds the greatest potential among its rivals and not because it was targeted by demonstrator females. [13] Another influencing biotic factor is predation; females threatened by predation would avoid foraging for a mate and, instead, mate with the male of the best quality traits in their confined region. [14] This best quality male might be in most cases the same male. [14]

Consexual Cueing

In polygamous species such as fallow deer (Dama dama), an outsider female deer (i.e. a female that is not part of the harem) might choose to mate with the harem's dominant male because the female is attracted to being a part of the harem's large group of females rather than being attracted to the dominant male itself. [18] Aside from mate choice copying, being part of a large female group would provide such an outsider female with protection, company, and food resources. [18]

Associative learning

Sometimes, nonindependent mate choice is not a direct copying of an observed mating preference; in fact, it can be the result of an association that the observer female constructs between mating with a target male and receiving a desired award. [13] For instance, in such species where males present the females with a nuptial gift as a prerequisite for mating with the female, observer females are more likely to associate mating with the same target male with the nuptial gift it might receive. [13] Such an association, then, might lead the observer female to mate with the same target male the demonstrator has mated with. [13] Even though there is not a lot of evidence to support this hypothesis, it offers a plausible explanation as to why females of a species might exhibit nonindependent mate choice. [13]

Related Research Articles

Sexual selection Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates

Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with, and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex. These two forms of selection result in some individuals having greater reproductive success than others within a population, for example because they are more attractive or prefer more attractive partners to produce offspring. For instance, in the breeding season, sexual selection in frogs occurs with the males first gathering at the water's edge and making their mating calls: croaking. The females then arrive and choose the males with the deepest croaks and best territories. In general, males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to a group of fertile females. Females can have a limited number of offspring and maximize the return on the energy they invest in reproduction.

Lek mating Type of animal mating behaviour

A lek is an aggregation of male animals gathered to engage in competitive displays and courtship rituals, known as lekking, to entice visiting females which are surveying prospective partners to mate with. A lek can also indicate an available plot of space able to be utilized by displaying males to defend their own share of territory for the breeding season. A lekking species is characterised by male displays, strong female mate choice, and the conferring of indirect benefits to males and reduced costs to females. Although most prevalent among birds such as black grouse, lekking is also found in a wide range of vertebrates including some bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals, and arthropods including crustaceans and insects.

Behavioral ecology Study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures

Behavioral ecology, also spelled behavioural ecology, is the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures. Behavioral ecology emerged from ethology after Niko Tinbergen outlined four questions to address when studying animal behaviors: What are the proximate causes, ontogeny, survival value, and phylogeny of a behavior?

European pied flycatcher Species of bird

The European pied flycatcher is a small passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family. One of the four species of Western Palearctic black-and-white flycatchers, it hybridizes to a limited extent with the collared flycatcher. It breeds in most of Europe and across the Western Palearctic. It is migratory, wintering mainly in tropical Africa. It usually builds its nests in holes on oak trees. This species practices polygyny, usually bigamy, with the male travelling large distances to acquire a second mate. The male will mate with the secondary female and then return to the primary female in order to help with aspects of child rearing, such as feeding.

Damselfish Group of fishes

Damselfish are those within the subfamilies Abudefdufinae, Chrominae, Lepidozyginae, Pomacentrinae, and Stegastenae within the family Pomacentridae. Most species within this group are relatively small, with the larges species being about 30cm in length. Most damselfish species exist only in marine environments, but a few inhabit brackish or fresh water. These fish are found globally in tropical, subtropical, and temperate waters.

Stickleback Family of fish

The Gasterosteidae are a family of fish including the sticklebacks. They are related to the pipefish and seahorses.

<i>Hyla</i> Genus of amphibians

Hyla is a genus of frogs in the tree frog family Hylidae. As traditionally defined, it was a wastebasket genus with more than 300 species found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and across the Americas. After a major revision of the family most of these have been moved to other genera so that Hyla now only contains 17 extant (living) species from Europe, northern Africa and Asia. The earliest known fossil member of this genus is †Hyla swanstoni from the Eocene of Saskatchewan, Canada, but its designation to Hyla happened before the major revision, meaning that its position needs confirmation.

Long-tailed paradise whydah Species of bird

The long-tailed paradise whydah or eastern paradise whydah is from the family Viduidae of the order Passeriformes. They are small passerines with short, stubby bills found across Sub-Saharan Africa. They are mostly granivorous and feed on seeds that have ripen and fall on the ground. The ability to identify between males and females is quite difficult unless it is breeding season. During this time, the males molt into breeding plumage where they have one distinctive feature which is their long tail. It can grow up to three times longer than its own body or even more. Usually, the whydahs look like ordinary sparrows with short tails during the non-breeding season. In addition, hybridization can occur with these paradise whydahs. Males are able to mimic songs where females can use that to discover their mate. However, there are some cases where females don't use songs to choose their mate but they use either male characteristics like plumages or they can have a shortage of options with song mimicry. Paradise whydahs are brood parasites. They won't destroy the eggs that are originally there but will lay their own eggs in other songbirds nest. Overall, these whydahs are considered least concerned based on the IUCN Red List of threatened species.

Mate choice

Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a “selective response by animals to particular stimuli” which can be observed as behavior. In other words, before an animal engages with a potential mate, they first evaluate various aspects of that mate which are indicative of quality—such as the resources or phenotypes they have—and evaluate whether or not those particular trait(s) are somehow beneficial to them. The evaluation will then incur a response of some sort.

Courtship display

A courtship display is a set of display behaviors in which an animal, usually a male, attempts to attract a mate; the mate exercises choice, so sexual selection acts on the display. These behaviors often include ritualized movement ("dances"), vocalizations, mechanical sound production, or displays of beauty, strength, or agonistic ability.

Nesting instinct

Nesting behaviour refers to an instinct or urge in pregnant animals associated with an increase of estradiol (E2) to prepare a home for the upcoming newborn(s). Nest building provides protection against predators and competitors that mean to exploit or kill infants. It also aids in family structure and is therefore influenced by different mating behaviours and social settings. It is found in a variety of animals such as birds, fish, squirrels, mice and pigs as well as humans. Nesting behaviour is seen mostly in pregnant females but such behaviour can also be observed in males and non-pregnant females. In these cases the behaviour is more for temperature control (thermoregulation).

Guppy Species of tropical fish

The guppy, also known as millionfish and rainbow fish, is one of the world's most widely distributed tropical fish and one of the most popular freshwater aquarium fish species. It is a member of the family Poeciliidae and, like almost all American members of the family, is live-bearing. Guppies originate from northeast South America, but have been introduced to many environments and are now found all over the world. They are highly adaptable and thrive in many different environmental and ecological conditions. Male guppies, which are smaller than females, have ornamental caudal and dorsal fins. Wild guppies generally feed on a variety of food sources, including benthic algae and aquatic insect larvae. Guppies are used as a model organism in the fields of ecology, evolution, and behavioural studies.

Female copulatory vocalizations, also called female copulation calls or coital vocalizations, are produced by female primates, including human females, and female non-primates. Copulatory vocalizations usually occur during copulation and are hence related to sexual activity. Vocalizations that occur before intercourse, for the purpose of attracting mates, are known as mating calls.

Sexual swelling

Sexual swellings are enlarged areas of genital and perineal skin occurring in some female primates that vary in size over the course of the menstrual cycle. Thought to be an honest signal of fertility, male primates are attracted to these swellings; preferring, and competing for, females with the largest swellings.

An alternative mating strategy is a strategy used by male or female animals, often with distinct phenotypes, that differs from the prevailing mating strategy of their sex. Such strategies are diverse and variable both across and within species. Animal sexual behaviour and mate choice directly affect social structure and relationships in many different mating systems, whether monogamous, polygamous, polyandrous, or polygynous. Though males and females in a given population typically employ a predominant reproductive strategy based on the overarching mating system, individuals of the same sex often use different mating strategies. Among some reptiles, frogs and fish, large males defend females, while small males may use sneaking tactics to mate without being noticed.

Inbreeding avoidance, or the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis, is a concept in evolutionary biology that refers to the prevention of the deleterious effects of inbreeding. The inbreeding avoidance hypothesis posits that certain mechanisms develop within a species, or within a given population of a species, as a result of assortative mating, natural and sexual selection in order to prevent breeding among related individuals in that species or population. Although inbreeding may impose certain evolutionary costs, inbreeding avoidance, which limits the number of potential mates for a given individual, can inflict opportunity costs. Therefore, a balance exists between inbreeding and inbreeding avoidance. This balance determines whether inbreeding mechanisms develop and the specific nature of said mechanisms.

Polyandry in nature

In behavioral ecology, polyandry is a class of mating system where one female mates with several males in a breeding season. Polyandry is often compared to the polygyny system based on the cost and benefits incurred by members of each sex. Polygyny is where one male mates with several females in a breeding season . A common example of polyandrous mating can be found in the field cricket of the invertebrate order Orthoptera. Polyandrous behavior is also prominent in many other insect species, including the red flour beetle and the species of spider Stegodyphus lineatus. Polyandry also occurs in some primates such as marmosets, mammal groups, the marsupial genus' Antechinus and bandicoots, around 1% of all bird species, such as jacanas and dunnocks, insects such as honeybees, and fish such as pipefish.

Syrian hamster behavior refers to the ethology of the Syrian hamster.

Female intrasexual competition Competition between women over a potential mate

Female intrasexual competition is competition between women over a potential mate. Such competition might include self-promotion, derogation of other women, and direct and indirect aggression toward other women. Factors that influence female intrasexual competition include the genetic quality of available mates, hormone levels, and interpersonal dynamics.

Behavioural responses to stress are evoked from underlying complex physiological changes that arise consequently from stress.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Alonzo, Suzanne H. (2008-05-01). "Female mate choice copying affects sexual selection in wild populations of the ocellated wrasse". Animal Behaviour. 75 (5): 1715–1723. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.09.031. ISSN   0003-3472.
  2. ↑ "The role of mate-choice copying in speciation and hybridization. | wizdom.ai - intelligence for everyone". doi:10.1111/BRV.12397. hdl: 10451/44220 . PMID   29417719.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ↑ Nöbel, Sabine; Danchin, Etienne; Isabel, Guillaume (2018-09-10). "Mate-copying for a costly variant in Drosophila melanogaster females". Behavioral Ecology. 29 (5): 1150–1156. doi: 10.1093/beheco/ary095 . ISSN   1045-2249.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Kavaliers, Martin; Matta, Richard; Choleris, Elena (2017-01-01). "Mate-choice copying, social information processing, and the roles of oxytocin". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 72: 232–242. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.003. ISSN   0149-7634. PMID   27923732.
  5. ↑ Dagaeff, A.-C.; Pocheville, A.; Nöbel, S.; Loyau, A.; Isabel, G.; Danchin, E. (2016). "Drosophila mate copying correlates with atmospheric pressure in a speed learning situation". Animal Behaviour. 121: 163–174. doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.08.022 .
  6. ↑ F. Mery, S.A.M. Varela, E. Danchin, S. Blanchet, D. Parejo, I. Coolen, and R.H. Wagner (2009). "Public versus personal information for mate copying in an invertebrate". Current Biology19:730-734.
  7. ↑ Amlacher, J.; Dugatkin, L. A. (2005-04-01). "Preference for older over younger models during mate-choice copying in young guppies". Ethology Ecology & Evolution. 17 (2): 161–169. doi:10.1080/08927014.2005.9522605. ISSN   0394-9370.
  8. ↑ Höglund, Jacob; Alatalo, Rauno V.; Gibson, Robert M.; Lundberg, Arne (1995-06-01). "Mate-choice copying in black grouse". Animal Behaviour. 49 (6): 1627–1633. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)90085-3. ISSN   0003-3472.
  9. ↑ Galef, Bennett G.; Lim, Terence C. W.; Gilbert, Geoffrey S. (2008-03-01). "Evidence of mate choice copying in Norway rats, Rattus norvegicus". Animal Behaviour. 75 (3): 1117–1123. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.026. ISSN   0003-3472.
  10. 1 2 Bowers, Robert I.; Place, S.S.; Todd, P.M.; Penke, L.; Asendorpf, J.B. (2012). "Generalization in mate-choice copying in humans". Behavioral Ecology. 23 (1): 112–124. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arr164 .
  11. 1 2 Witte, Klaudia; Ryan, Michael J. (2002-05-01). "Mate choice copying in the sailfin molly, Poecilia latipinna, in the wild". Animal Behaviour. 63 (5): 943–949. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1982. ISSN   0003-3472.
  12. ↑ Vukomanovic, Jelena; Rodd, F. Helen (2007-06-01). "Size‐Dependent Female Mate Copying in the Guppy (Poecilia reticulata): Large Females are Role Models but Small Ones are not". Ethology. 113 (6): 579–586. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2007.01343.x. ISSN   1439-0310.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Westneat, David F.; Walters, Alena; McCarthy, Thomas M.; Hatch, Margret I.; Hein, Wendy K. (2000-03-01). "Alternative mechanisms of nonindependent mate choice". Animal Behaviour. 59 (3): 467–476. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1341. ISSN   0003-3472. PMID   10715168.
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  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Stöhr, SABINE (1998-04-01). "Evolution of mate-choice copying: a dynamic model". Animal Behaviour. 55 (4): 893–903. doi:10.1006/anbe.1997.0674. ISSN   0003-3472. PMID   9632476.
  16. ↑ Griffith, Simon C.; Pryke, Sarah R.; Buttemer, William A. (2011-09-22). "Constrained mate choice in social monogamy and the stress of having an unattractive partner". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1719): 2798–2805. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2672. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   3145185 . PMID   21288942.
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