Metronet (British infrastructure company)

Last updated

Metronet Rail Ltd
Company typePrivate / consortium
IndustryRailway infrastructure
Founded1999
Defunct2009
FateAdministration
HeadquartersTemplar House, High Holborn, London
Key people
  • Andrew Cooper (BCV MD)
  • David Crawley (SSL MD)
  • Andrew Lezala (group CEO)
Number of employees
approx. 6,000
Parent

Metronet Rail was an asset-management company responsible for the maintenance, renewal and upgrade of the infrastructure, including track, trains, signals, civils work and stations, on several London Underground lines. It was one of two infrastructure companies (the other being Tube Lines Ltd) in a public-private partnership (PPP) with the Underground.

Contents

Metronet was founded in 1999 as a consortium of several private companies to bid for a PPP, the British Government having signaled its intention to transfer such activity from the public sector, although the bidding process was protracted by political disagreements. [1] Metronet emerged as the successful bidder for two 30-year contracts covering various tube and sub-surface lines; starting in 2003, it was responsible for the maintenance, renewal, and upgrade of the infrastructure (track, trains, tunnels, signals, and stations) on a total of nine Underground lines. [2] [3] To encourage high reliability rates, financial deductions were incurred for poor performance at twice the rate of increase in revenue for improved performance. [4] [5]

The PPP arrangement was closely scrutinised by the British government; by early 2005, both the House of Commons Transport Select Committee and the Public Accounts Committee were criticising the opaque nature of the PPP as well as questioning the value for money in comparison to a publicly run investment programme. [6] [7] In August 2004, Metronet was declared at fault for a May 2004 derailment at White City. In April 2005, the chief executive of Metronet was sacked following complaints that it had made £50 million profit despite being behind on all its major works. During November 2006, Metronet were heavily criticised by the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) over their performance from 2003 to 2006. In July 2007, the company admitted that it may have caused a Central Line train derailment near Mile End.

Following financial difficulties, the company was placed in administration during July 2007. [8] In May 2008, the company's responsibilities were transferred back into public ownership under the authority of Transport for London (TfL). [9] [2] In June 2009, the National Audit Office estimated that the failure of the Metronet PPP contract cost the taxpayer up to £410 million, adding that "most of the blame for Metronet's collapse lay with the consortium itself." [10] The company was wound up in December 2009. [11] After TfL opted to buy out the Tube Lines consortium in 2010, all Underground infrastructure maintenance was thereafter managed in-house.

History

Background

During the mid 1990s, the Conservative government conducted a deep exploration of various options for involving the private sector in the operations of the London Underground. [4] These options included its complete privatisation, akin to that of British Rail. This option was publicly opposed by the Labour Party, who stated in their New Labour, New Life for Britain manifesto for the upcoming general election that the wholesale privatisation of the Underground was not the answer and proposed the use of a public-private partnership (PPP) arrangement instead. [4]

Following the election, the new Labour government promptly began work on setting up PPPs, stating that this would address the perceived period of underinvestment in the Underground. [12] [4] The selected model called for the operation of services on the Tube to remain in the hands of the public sector while the infrastructure (including the track, trains, tunnels, signals, and stations) would be leased to private firms for a 30 year period, during which they would enact various improvements. [12] [4] A public denial that the newly-formed railway infrastructure company Railtrack would be involved in the PPP was issued by the government after it was made clear that some parties would refuse to bid if it was. By the turn of the century, senior figures within the government was strongly advocating for the implementation of these PPPs. [1] [4]

Metronet was founded in 1999 as a consortium of companies to bid for PPP contracts. [13] The equal shareholders in the venture were Atkins, Balfour Beatty, Adtranz (later Bombardier Transportation), SEEBOARD (later EDF Energy), and Thames Water. [13]

To pay for the works, each company provided £70 million of equity; a further £2 billion was raised using bank loans, and £600 million from the European Investment Bank. [5] The consortium awarded contracts to its own shareholders, for example rolling stock contracts were awarded to Bombardier Transportation. [3] This closed shop supply chain approach was later criticised for causing high costs for the consortium. [14] [15]

Formation of the PPP

The bidding process was protracted by political factors, including public disagreements on the topic of PPPs between then-Mayor of London Ken Livingstone and Deputy Prime Minister Jon Prescott. [1] [4] Furthermore, in the aftermath of the Hatfield rail crash, there was a climate of both public and political skepticism in the involvement of the private sector in transport infrastructure. During early 2001, Bob Kiley, the first commissioner of Transport for London (TfL) and an outspoken critic of the prospective PPPs, [16] [1] was put in charge of the process. Kiley was also empowered to revise the terms of the prospective contracts; he promptly produced updated briefs for the PPPs, a move which thus necessitated the submission of revised bids. [1]

During May 2001, it was announced that both Metronet and Tube Lines had been selected as the preferred consortiums. [4] [16] [17] Metronet emerged as the successful bidder for two 30-year contracts, covering various tube and sub-surface lines; specifically, the BCV (tube) lines contract involved the Bakerloo, Central, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines, while the SSL (sub-surface) lines contract covered Circle, District, East London, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. [18] [16]

Separately, Tube Lines was awarded the contract for the other London Underground lines – Jubilee, Northern and Piccadilly. Both Metronet and Tube Lines were colloquially referred to as "infracos"; [16] there was repeated speculation that the two companies planned to merge. [19] Contracts valued at around £17 billion over the 30-year period were issued, under which these companies received around £660 million each month from the Government, although this amount was subject to reductions if targets are not met. [18]

In April 2003, Metronet began to maintain, upgrade and renewal London Underground infrastructure at the PPP came into force. [5]

Commitments under the PPP

Under the terms of the PPP contracts, Metronet agreed to maintain London Underground infrastructure (track, trains, tunnels, signals, and stations) to the standards and performance levels set in the contract. Furthermore, Metronet committed to delivering substantial improvements to the network, by refurbishing, upgrading and renewing track, trains, tunnels, signals, and stations. [4] To encourage high reliability, deductions suffered for poor performance were set at twice the rate of increase in revenue for improved performance. [3] [5]

At a cost of £7 billion, Metronet promised substantial investment during the first 7.5 years of the contract (2003 to 2010): [3]

Performance and criticism

From 2006, Metronet used five Class 66 locomotives from GB Railfreight to help speed up track replacement works 66712 Metronet Ipswich (cropped).JPG
From 2006, Metronet used five Class 66 locomotives from GB Railfreight to help speed up track replacement works

In June 2004, the National Audit Office criticised the complexity of the PPP deals, noting they offered "the prospect, but not the certainty" of improvements. [20] In August 2004, Metronet was declared at fault by an accident investigators' report into a May 2004 derailment at White City, for failing to implement sufficient safety checks despite being ordered to do so by TfL. [21] [22]

During March 2005, the House of Commons Transport Select Committee noted that "Availability is the most important factor for Tube travellers. All the infracos needed to do to meet their availability benchmarks was to perform only a little worse than in the past. On most lines, they did not even manage that." [7] That same month, the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee, charged with ensuring value for money in public spending, published a report concluding that it was "impossible to determine" whether the PPP was better value than a publicly run investment programme. [6]

In April 2005, the Commissioner of Transport for London, Bob Kiley, pressed for an urgent review of the PPP, describing its performance as "bordering on disaster". TfL also said that new technology promised by Metronet had yet to be seen — "We were supposed to be getting private sector expertise and technology with the PPP (Public Private Partnership) but instead they are just using the same old kit." [15] One week later, the chief executive of Metronet was sacked, [23] after complaints that the company had made £50 million profit despite being behind on all its major works. [24] By April 2005, it had started work on only 13 station refurbishments, instead of 32 as scheduled, and was more than a year behind on the refurbishment of 78 District line trains. It was also behind on its track replacement programme, having completed 28 km of the anticipated 48 km. [25]

During November 2006, Metronet were heavily criticised by the arbiter of the PPP, the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) over their performance from 2003 to 2006. [18] Specific analysis included the finding that Metronet had not performed in an economic or efficient manner, and had failed to follow good industry practice. The ORR also stated that Metronet would be held responsible for £750 million in cost overruns. [18] [26] The other PPP consortium, Tube Lines, noted that they were delivering projects on time and on budget. [14]

In July 2007, Metronet admitted that it may have caused a Central Line train derailment near Mile End, in which a train hit a fire blanket left by maintenance workers. [27] [28]

Administration

In April 2007, Mayor Ken Livingstone stated that Metronet could collapse due to a £750 million overspend. [29] In July 2007, it was reported that Metronet was "teetering on the brink of administration". [30] The situation arose because it had received only £121 million out of the £551 million that was needed to cover cost over-runs. By contrast, Tube Lines, the other PPP consortium, had brought in almost all of its works on time and on budget. [31] On 18 July 2007, the company was placed into administration. [11] [8]

To enable its business activities to be kept going while the winding-up of the company was in progress, the British Government provided Metronet with £2 billion in 2008. [32] Following negotiations with Bombardier, Metronet modified contracts to allow for continued delivery of 2009 Stock and S Stock trains, while releasing Bombardier from its obligation to resignal the sub-surface lines. [9]

Aftermath

On 27 May 2008, Metronet came out of administration, and its contracts and employees were transferred to TfL under two new temporary companies, LUL Nominee BCV Ltd and LUL Nominee SSL Ltd. On 3 December 2009, the PPP business of Metronet Rail became an integral part of London Underground. [9] [2] Some of the improvements promised by Metronet were delivered (such as new 2009 Stock and S Stock trains), however other improvements were cancelled or delayed.

During early 2008, the Department for Transport rejected claims that the PPP was to blame for the collapse of Metronet, and that it was "predominantly a corporate failure", with "structural weaknesses [that] led to its own downfall." [33] In 2010, the House of Commons' Public Accounts Committee reprimanded the Department for Transport for its failure to heed National Audit Office warnings about the company's management. [34] According to the report from the Public Accounts Committee, around £170 million to £410m of taxpayer money was lost due to the failure of Metronet. [35] [36] The companies involved in the consortium collectively lost around £350 million in the collapse. [35]

In May 2010, it was announced that TfL would buy out the Tube Lines consortium, formally ending the PPP. [37] [38] [39] Commentators blamed the complex and "onerous" contracts for its failure. [40] Combined with the takeover of Metronet, this meant that all maintenance was thereafter managed in-house, although TfL has continued to use a large number of private suppliers and contractors. [37] By the beginning of 2011, with the formal liquidation process having been completed, the Metronet brand and group of companies had ceased to exist.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport for London</span> English transport authority

Transport for London (TfL) is a local government body responsible for most of the transport network in London, United Kingdom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waterloo & City line</span> London Underground line

The Waterloo & City line, colloquially known as The Drain, is a London Underground shuttle line that runs between Waterloo and Bank with no intermediate stops. Its primary traffic consists of commuters from south-west London, Surrey and Hampshire arriving at Waterloo main line station and travelling forward to the City of London financial district. For this reason, the line has historically not operated on Sundays or public holidays, except in very limited circumstances. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the line is currently only open on weekdays. It is one of only two lines on the Underground network to run completely underground, the other being the Victoria line.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central line (London Underground)</span> London Underground line

The Central line is a London Underground line that runs through central London, from Epping, Essex, in the north-east to Ealing Broadway and West Ruislip in west London. Printed in red on the Tube map, the line serves 49 stations over 46 miles (74 km), making it the longest line on the Underground. It is one of only two lines on the Underground network to cross the Greater London boundary, the other being the Metropolitan line. One of London's deep-level railways, Central line trains are smaller than those on British main lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bakerloo line</span> London Underground line

The Bakerloo line is a London Underground line that runs from Harrow & Wealdstone in suburban north-west London to Elephant & Castle in south London, via the West End. Printed in brown on the Tube map, it serves 25 stations, 15 of which are underground, over 23.2 kilometres (14.4 mi). It runs partly on the surface and partly through deep-level tube tunnels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circle line (London Underground)</span> London Underground line

The Circle line is a spiral-shaped London Underground line, running from Hammersmith in the west to Edgware Road and then looping around central London back to Edgware Road. The railway is below ground in the central section and on the loop east of Paddington. Unlike London's deep-level lines, the Circle line tunnels are just below the surface and are of similar size to those on British main lines. Printed in yellow on the Tube map, the 17-mile (27 km) line serves 36 stations, including most of London's main line termini. Almost all of the route, and all the stations, are shared with one or more of the three other sub-surface lines, namely the District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. On the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines combined, over 141 million passenger journeys were recorded in 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hammersmith & City line</span> London Underground line

The Hammersmith & City line is a London Underground line that runs between Hammersmith in west London and Barking in east London. Coloured pink on the Tube map, it serves 29 stations over 15.8 miles (25.5 km). Between Farringdon and Aldgate East it skirts the City of London, the capital's financial heart, hence the line's name. Its tunnels are just below the surface and are a similar size to those on British main lines. Most of the track and all stations are shared with either the District, Circle, or Metropolitan lines. Over 141 million passenger journeys are made each year on the Hammersmith & City and Circle lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mile End tube station</span> London Underground station

Mile End is a London Underground station in Mile End, London. It is served by the Hammersmith & City, District and Central lines. This station features a cross-platform interchange in both directions; District and Hammersmith & City lines stop on the inside tracks, and the Central line stops on the outside tracks. It is in Travelcard Zone 2.

Robert R. Kiley was an American public transit planner and supervisor, with a reputation of being able to save transit systems experiencing serious problems. From 2001 to 2006 he was the initial Commissioner of Transport for London, the public organisation empowered with running and maintaining London's public transport network.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">London Underground 1992 Stock</span> Electric multiple unit used on the Central and Waterloo & City lines of the London Underground

The London Underground 1992 Stock is a type of rolling stock used on the Central and Waterloo & City lines of the London Underground. A total of 85 eight-car trains were built for the Central line and 5 four-car trains were built for the Waterloo & City line.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the London Underground</span>

The history of the London Underground began in the 19th century with the construction of the Metropolitan Railway, the world's first underground railway. The Metropolitan Railway, which opened in 1863 using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives, worked with the District Railway to complete London's Circle line in 1884. Both railways expanded, the Metropolitan eventually extending as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 km) from Baker Street and the centre of London. The first deep-level tube line, the City and South London Railway, opened in 1890 with electric trains. This was followed by the Waterloo & City Railway in 1898, the Central London Railway in 1900, and the Great Northern and City Railway in 1904. The Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) was established in 1902 to fund the electrification of the District Railway and to complete and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway, the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, which opened in 1906–07. By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tube Lines</span> British infrastructure company

Tube Lines Limited, initially known as Infraco JNP, was an asset-management company responsible for the maintenance, renewal and upgrade of the infrastructure, including track, trains, signals, civils work and stations, of three London Underground lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">London Underground 1972 Stock</span> Type of rolling stock used on the Bakerloo line of the London Underground

The London Underground 1972 Stock is a type of rolling stock used on the London Underground. The 1972 Stock was originally ordered to make up the shortfall in trains on the Northern line's 1959 Tube Stock fleet, but is currently used on the Bakerloo line. Following the withdrawal of the British Rail Class 483 EMUs in 2021, the 1972 Stock are now the oldest EMUs in passenger service in the United Kingdom. A total of 63 seven-car trains were built in two separate batches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">London Underground 2009 Stock</span> An electric multiple unit used on the Victoria line of the London Underground

The London Underground 2009 Stock is a type of London Underground train built by Bombardier as part of its Movia family at its Derby Litchurch Lane Works, England. A total of 47 eight-car trains have been built for the Victoria line. They entered service between July 2009 and June 2011 and replaced the 1967 Tube Stock. It is the first new deep level tube stock on the Underground network since the 1996 Stock entered service on the Jubilee line in 1997.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">London Underground S7 and S8 Stock</span> Rolling stock in use on the London Underground

The London Underground S7 and S8 Stock, commonly referred to as S Stock, is a type of passenger train running on the London Underground's subsurface lines since 2010. Manufactured by Bombardier Transportation's Derby Litchurch Lane Works, the S Stock was ordered to replace the A60, A62, C69, C77 and D78 stock on the Metropolitan, District, Hammersmith & City, and Circle lines, which all dated from the 1960s and 1970s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amey plc</span> United Kingdom-based infrastructure support service provider

Amey plc, previously known as Amey Ltd and Amey Roadstone Construction, is a United Kingdom-based infrastructure support service provider.

The Old Dalby Test Track is a railway in the United Kingdom which is used for testing new designs of trains and railway infrastructure. It runs between Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire and Edwalton, on the course of the Midland Railway's route between Kettering and Nottingham which closed to passengers on 1 May 1967, and to goods in 1968. It is 13.5 miles (21.7 km) in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the District line</span>

The history of the District line started in 1864 when the Metropolitan District Railway was created to create an underground 'inner circle' connecting London's railway termini. The first part of the line opened using Metropolitan Railway gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. The District introduced its own trains in 1871 and was soon extended westwards through Earl's Court to Fulham, Richmond, Ealing and Hounslow. After completing the 'inner circle' and reaching Whitechapel in 1884, it was extended to Upminster in East London in 1902. To finance electrification at the beginning of the 20th century, American financier Charles Yerkes took it over and made it part of his Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) group. Electric propulsion was introduced in 1905, and by the end of the year electric multiple units operated all of the services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">London Underground 2024 Stock</span> New type of London Underground rolling stock

The London Underground 2024 Stock, known as the New Tube for London (NTfL) during development, is a London Underground train being built by Siemens Mobility at its facilities in Goole, United Kingdom and Vienna, Austria. It is part of the Siemens Inspiro family of metro and rapid-transport trains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malcolm Bates (transport administrator)</span>

Sir Malcolm Rowland Bates was a British industrialist. He served as the chairman of London Regional Transport from 1999 to 2003.

The Four Lines Modernisation (4LM) is a series of projects by Transport for London (TfL) to modernise and upgrade the sub-surface lines of the London Underground: the Circle, District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. The upgrades entail new rolling stock, new signalling and new track and drainage.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Baldock, Hannah (9 February 2001). "Getting the Tube to work". Building. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 "Metronet's takeover is complete". BBC News. 27 May 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Metronet Brochure 2005" (PDF). Metronet. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2006. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Butcher, Louise (16 January 2012). "London Underground PPP: background" (PDF). House of Commons Library . Retrieved 25 February 2024.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "Final stamp on Tube PPP deal". BBC News. 4 April 2003. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  6. 1 2 "London Underground Public Private Partnerships" (PDF). House of Commons Public Accounts Committee. 9 March 2005. p. 9.
  7. 1 2 "The Performance of the London Underground" (PDF). House of Commons Transport Committee. 9 March 2005. p. 9.
  8. 1 2 "Metronet calls in administrators". BBC News. 18 July 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 Wright, Robert (1 April 2008). "Metronet resolves contract dispute". Financial Times . Retrieved 7 March 2020.
  10. ↑ "Metronet failure cost taxpayer upto £410m". Contract Journal. Archived from the original on 15 June 2009.
  11. 1 2 . The London Gazette. 11 November 2009. p. 19523.{{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  12. 1 2 "New blow to Tube sell-off plan". BBC News . 16 December 2000. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  13. 1 2 "House of Commons - Transport, Local Government and the Regions - Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence". Parliament.uk. October 2001. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  14. 1 2 Milmo, Dan (28 May 2007). "London tube work - one firm on budget; the other £750m over". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077.
  15. 1 2 Webster, Ben (14 April 2005). "Metronet behind schedule on all of its main Tube projects". The Times. London.(subscription required)
  16. 1 2 3 4 Kiley, Bob (12 October 2001). "Bob Kiley: Trouble down the line". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  17. ↑ "The London Underground". BBC News. 3 May 2001.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "Metronet shareholders face £750m bill for London Underground failures". The Guardian. 17 November 2006. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  19. ↑ Clark, Phil (11 April 2003). "London Underground rules out 'supercompany' merger". building.co.uk.
  20. ↑ "London Underground PPP: Were they good deals? - National Audit Office (NAO) Report". National Audit Office. June 2004. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  21. ↑ "Formal Investigation into the derailment of a Central line train at White City on 11th May 2004" (PDF). London Underground. August 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2004.
  22. ↑ Clark, Andrew (20 August 2004). "Private firm blamed for tube derailment". The Guardian. London.
  23. ↑ "Metronet boss sacked over delays". The Guardian. 14 April 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  24. ↑ Vulliamy, Ed; Clark, Andrew (21 February 2005). "Down the tube: how PPP deal is costing London". The Guardian. London.
  25. ↑ Webster, Ben (14 April 2005). "Metronet behind schedule on all of its main Tube projects". The Times. London.
  26. ↑ "Tube and train services disrupted". BBC News. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
  27. ↑ "Metronet admits it may have caused tube derailment". The Guardian. 5 July 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  28. ↑ Rail Accident Report - Derailment of a London Underground Central Line train near Mile End station 5 July 2007 (PDF). Department of Transport - Rail Accident Investigation Branch. January 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.
  29. ↑ "Mayor admits Metronet could collapse". The Guardian. 24 April 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  30. ↑ Hawkes, Steve (17 July 2007). "Metronet on brink of collapse after plea on costs is rejected". The Times . London.
  31. ↑ "Partnership that turned sour". The Times. 27 June 2007.
  32. ↑ "Govt in £2bn Metronet bail-out". inthenews.co.uk. 7 February 2008. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  33. ↑ "PPP 'not to blame' for Metronet collapse". The Guardian. 31 March 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2021. The government is clear that this was predominantly a corporate failure, and that the structural weaknesses of Metronet led to its own downfall.
  34. ↑ "DoT failed to heed NAO warning over Metronet finances". Accountancy Age. 2 March 2010. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010.
  35. 1 2 "House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts - Department for Transport: The failure of Metronet" (PDF). Public Accounts Committee. 22 February 2010.
  36. ↑ "'Poor management' failed Metronet". BBC News. 2 March 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  37. 1 2 "Tube maintenance back 'in house' as new deal is signed". BBC News. 8 May 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
  38. ↑ "Amey sells its stake in Tube Lines to Transport for London (TfL) and agrees to continue with the maintenance service". Ferrovial. 7 May 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  39. ↑ "New era for the Tube as Transport for London completes acquisition of Tube Lines". Transport for London. 27 June 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  40. ↑ "Tube Lines deal collapses amid cost accusations and fears for future work". Construction Manager. 14 May 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.