Persecution of minority Muslim groups

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A number of minority groups within Islam have faced persecution by other Muslims for allegedly being incompatible with Sunni Islam.

Contents

Ahmadis

The Ahmadiyya regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and "heretics" since they are accused of not believing in the finality of prophethood since the death of Muhammad. Armed groups, led by the umbrella organization Khatme Nabuwwat ("Finality of Prophethood"), have launched violent attacks against their mosques in Bangladesh. [1]

They committed massacres against them which resulted in 2,000 Ahmadiyya deaths in Pakistani Punjab. Eventually, martial law had to be established and Governor general Ghulam Mohamed dismissed the federal cabinet. This anti-Ahmadiyya movement led Pakistani prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto to declare that the Ahmadiyyas were "non-Muslims". [2] [3]

In 1984, the Government of Pakistan, under General Zia-ul-Haq, passed Ordinance XX, [4] which banned proselytizing by Ahmadis and also banned Ahmadis from referring to themselves as Muslims. According to this ordinance, any Ahmadi who refers to oneself as a Muslim by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, directly or indirectly, or makes the call for prayer as other Muslims do, is punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years. Because of these difficulties, Mirza Tahir Ahmad migrated to London, UK.

Ajlafs and Arzals

Despite the claims of Islam's egalitarian tenets,[ additional citation(s) needed ] units of social stratification, termed as "castes" by many, have developed among Muslims in some parts of South Asia. [5] [6] Various theories have been put forward regarding the development of castes among Indian Muslims. Majority of sources state that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture and Hindu converts to Islam, [5] [6] [7] [8] while few others feel that these developed based on claims of descent from Muhammad. [9] [10]

Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) have declared the religious legitimacy of the caste system with the help of the concept of kafa'a. [11] A classic example of scholarly literature supporting the Muslim caste system is the Fatawa-i Jahandari, written by the 14th century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and he regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims[ citation needed ].

He divided the Muslims into grades and sub-grades. In his scheme, all high positions and privileges were to be a monopoly of the high born Turks, not the Indian Muslims[ citation needed ]. Even in his interpretation of the Koranic verse "Indeed, the pious amongst you are most honored by Allah", he considered piety to be associated with noble birth. [9] Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Ashrafs] "be given a higher social status than the low-born [i.e. Ajlaf]. [12] His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam. [13] His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" which would carry precedence over Sharia law whenever they were in conflict. [13]

In the Fatwa-i-Jahandari (advice XXI), he wrote about the "qualities of the high-born" as being "virtuous" and the "low-born" as being the "custodians of vices". Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". [14] Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters[ citation needed ]. He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect. [8] Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was conducted primarily on the basis of caste. [12]

In addition to the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, [15] whose members were regarded by anti-Caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables. [16] [17] The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc. [16] [17] The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census in India and its members are also called Dalit Muslims "with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground"[ citation needed ].They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil. [18]

Alawites

The Alawites are a sub group of the Muslim faith that believes in the divine nature of Ali, the cousin of Muhammad.

Ibn Taymiyyah asserted that Alawites were not Shi'ites and were heretics outside Islam, arguably being the most virulent anti-Alawite in his fatwas [19] where he stated that Alawites "are more infidel than Jews or Christians, even more infidel than many polytheists. They have done greater harm to the community of Muhammad than have the warring infidels such as the Franks, the Turks, and others. To ignorant Muslims they pretend to be Shi’is, though in reality they do not believe in God or His prophet or His book[...] Whenever possible, they spill the blood of Muslims[...] They are always the worst enemies of the Muslims[...] war and punishment in accordance with Islamic law against them are among the greatest of pious deeds and the most important obligations". [20] The Ottomans often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious rulings to justify their persecution of Alawites. [21]

Mutazilites

In medieval Iraq, the Mu'tazili theological movement was made a state doctrine in 832, igniting the Mihna (ordeal) a struggle over the application of Greek logical proof of the Qu'ran; people who would not accept Mu'tazili claims that the Qur'an was created rather than eternal were sometimes persecuted. The most famous victims of the Mihna were Ahmad Ibn Hanbal who was imprisoned and tortured, and the judge Ahmad Ibn Nasr al-Khuza'i who was crucified. [22] Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was dragged before the inquisition, known as the Mihna, ordered by the caliph al-Maʾmūn. [23]

However, it lost official support soon afterwards. This coincided with the rise to prominence of the Ash'ari approach to Islam, of which Al-Ghazali was a staunch defender. Sunni and Shi'a Islam became the mainstream schools of Islam. As a consequence, the tables turned and some Mutazili scholars were victims of persecution themselves in the centuries to follow. Some Islamic philosophers like Averroes and Avicenna also faced persecution from fellow Muslims in their time. [24] Mu'tazilite doctrine – by now regarded as heretical by Sunnis – continued to be influential amongst some Shia in Persia and Zaydis in Yemen. [25]

Shi'a

Throughout history, Shi'as have faced genocide in Sunni majority locations. In 1513, Ottoman Sultan Selim I ("The Grim") ordered the massacre of 40,000 Shia "heretics" in Anatolia during the Safavid-Ottoman struggles. [26] [27]

The Mughal emperor Aurengzeb is also recorded to have persecuted Shi‘a communities. His persecution of the Ismaili successor to Imam al-Din, or Imamshah, changed the course of the history of his community of followers. Common folk took up arms against the military and captured the fortress of Broach. However, their initial success did not last and, along with other sister communities, they were put down. [28]

While some strand in Sunni regards Shiism as a valid madhhab, following Al Azhar, some Sunnis both now and in the past have regarded it as beyond the pale, and have attacked its adherents. In modern times, notable examples include the bombing campaigns by the Sunni Sipah-e-Sahaba against Shia mosques in Pakistan, [29] the genocide of Hazara under the Taliban, [30] and the bloody attacks linked with Zarqawi and his Sunni followers against Shia in Iraq. [31]

Some of the worst Shia-Sunni sectarian strife has occurred before (under Saddam regime responsible for at least 400,000 Shia deaths) and after the American invasion of Iraq. [32] According to one estimate, as of early 2008, 1,121 Sunni suicide bombers have blown themselves up in Shia-majority Iraq. [33] Sunni suicide bombers have targeted not only thousands of civilians, [34] but mosques, shrines, [35] wedding and funeral processions, [36] markets, hospitals, offices, and streets. [37]

The Saudi Arabian government has been viewed as repressive against Shias living in Saudi Arabia, mainly because it encourages the Salafi faith, which denounces Shia Islam as heretical. Shias are mainly persecuted due to the belief that they are Iranian "puppets" and traitors. In several Saudi Arabian cities, Shia azans and Ashura demonstrations are banned.[ citation needed ]

Sunni Muslims

The Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam was a process that took place roughly over the 16th through 18th centuries and turned Iran (Persia), which previously had a Sunni majority, into the spiritual bastion of Twelver Shi'ism. It was a process that involved forced conversion [38] [39] [40] [41]

Ismail I consolidated his rule over the country and launched a thorough and, at times, brutal campaign to convert the majority Sunni population to Twelver Shiism and thus transform the religious landscape of Iran. [42] His methods of converting Iran included:

Yaqub Beg's Uyghur forces declared a Jihad against Chinese Muslims under T'o Ming during the Dungan revolt. The Uyghurs thought that the Chinese Muslims were Shafi`i, and since the Uyghurs were Hanafi that they should wage war against them. Yaqub Beg enlisted non Muslim Han Chinese militia under Hsu Hsuehkung in order to fight against the Chinese Muslims. T'o Ming's forces were defeated by Yaqub, who planned to conquer Dzungharia. Yaqub intended to seize all Dungan territory. [57] [58]

Takfiris

Certain small groups – the Kharijites of early medieval times, and Takfir wal Hijra- follow takfirist doctrines, regarding almost all other Muslims as infidels whose blood may legitimately be shed. [59] [60]

Wahhabis

The Kuomintang Sufi Chinese Muslim General Ma Bufang, who backed the Yihewani (Ikhwan) Muslims, persecuted the Salafi/Wahhabis. The Yihewani forced the Salafis into hiding. They were not allowed to move or worship openly. The Yihewani had become secular and Chinese nationalist, and they considered the Salafiyya to be "Heterodox" (xie jiao), and people who followed foreigner's teachings (waidao). Only after the Communists took over were the Salafis allowed to come out and worship openly. [61]

See also

Related Research Articles

Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (khalīfa) and the Imam after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions (ṣaḥāba) at Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunnī Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful (rāshidūn) caliph after Muhammad. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shia Muslims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in India</span> Overview of the role of the Islam in India

Islam is India's second-largest religion, with 14.2% of the country's population, or approximately 172.2 million people, identifying as adherents of Islam in a 2011 census. India also has the third-largest number of Muslims in the world. The majority of India's Muslims are Sunni, with Shia making up around 15% of the Muslim population.

Islam entered Iran with the Muslim conquest (637–651) and led to the end of the Sasanian Empire and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Iran (Persia). Since its establishment after the 7th-century conquest, Islam has remained the state religion of Iran except for during a short period after the Mongol invasions and subsequent establishment of the Ilkhanate in the 13th century. Following the Muslim conquest, there was a slow but steady movement of the population toward Islam, despite notable resistance, with nobility and city-dwellers being the first to convert, and the peasantry and the dehqans, or land-owning magnates slower to do so. By the 10th century, the majority of Persians had become Muslims.

This is an alphabetical list of topics related to Islam, the history of Islam, Islamic culture, and the present-day Muslim world, intended to provide inspiration for the creation of new articles and categories. This list is not complete; please add to it as needed. This list may contain multiple transliterations of the same word: please do not delete the multiple alternative spellings—instead, please make redirects to the appropriate pre-existing Wikipedia article if one is present.

Takfiri is an Arabic and Islamic term denoting a Muslim who excommunicates one of his/her coreligionists, i.e. who accuses another Muslim of being an apostate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic schools and branches</span> Overview of sectarian divisions within Islam

Islamic schools and branches have different understandings of Islam. There are many different sects or denominations, schools of Islamic jurisprudence, and schools of Islamic theology, or ʿaqīdah (creed). Within Islamic groups themselves there may be differences, such as different orders (tariqa) within Sufism, and within Sunnī Islam different schools of theology and jurisprudence. Groups in Islam may be numerous, or relatively small in size.

Sunni and Shia are different sects among Muslims and the difference of opinions have resulted in many Fatwas, non-binding but authoritative legal opinion or learned interpretation issues pertaining to the Islamic law. Fatwas are based on the question and answer process found in the Quran, which seeks to enlighten on theological and philosophical issues, hadith, legal theory, duties, and the Sharia law. Sunni fatwas have been used to justify the persecution of Shia throughout their history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in Syria</span> Overview of the role of Islam in Syria

Several different denominations and sects of Islam are practised within Syria, whom collectively, constitute approximately 87% of the population and form a majority in most of the districts of the country.

Muslim communities in South Asia apply a system of social stratification. The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of pure and impure that are integral to the Indian caste system. It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and upper caste Hindus who converted to Islam (Ashraf) and the local lower caste converts (Ajlaf) as well as the continuation of the Indian caste system among local converts. Non-Ashrafs are backward caste converts. The neologism "Pasmanda" includes Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being the descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their pesha (profession). These terms are not used in local, sociological vocabulary in places such as Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.

Sectarian violence in Pakistan refers to violence directed against people and places in Pakistan motivated by antagonism toward the target's religious sect. As many as 4,000 Shia are estimated to have been killed in sectarian attacks in Pakistan between 1987 and 2007, and thousands more Shia have been killed by Sunni extremists from 2008 to 2014, according to Human Rights Watch (HRW). Sunni Deobandis and Barelvis have also suffered from some sectarian violence, with attacks on religious shrines killing hundreds of worshippers, and some Deobandi leaders assassinated. Pakistan minority religious groups, including Hindus, Ahmadis, and Christians, have "faced unprecedented insecurity and persecution" in at least two recent years, according to Human Rights Watch. One significant aspect of the attacks in Pakistan is that militants often target their victims places of worship during prayers or religious services in order to maximize fatalities and to "emphasize the religious dimensions of their attack".

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Religion in Iran has been shaped by multiple religions and sects over the course of the country's history. Zoroastrianism was the main followed religion during the Achaemenid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sasanian Empire. Another Iranian religion known as Manichaeanism was present in Iran during this period. Jewish and Christian communities thrived, especially in the territories of northwestern, western, and southern Iran—mainly Caucasian Albania, Asoristan, Persian Armenia, and Caucasian Iberia. A significant number of Iranian peoples also adhered to Buddhism in what was then eastern Iran, such as the regions of Bactria and Sogdia.

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah) and that Muhammad is His last Messenger.

Following their rise to power in Iran in the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty initiated a campaign of forced conversion against the Iranian populace, seeking to create a new demographic environment in which Shia Islam would replace Sunni Islam as the nation's religious majority. Over the course of the next three centuries, the Safavids heavily persecuted Sunni Muslims, Jews, Christians, and other religious groups, eventually transforming Iran into a spiritual bastion of Shia Islam. This process led to hostilities with Iran's Sunni-majority neighbours, most notably the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, the Safavid campaign sought to ensure Twelver dominance among Shia Muslims, particularly with regard to Zaydism and Ismaʿilism—each of which had previously experienced their own eras of sectarian dominance. Through their actions, the Safavids were able to establish the Shia sect as the official religion of their empire, marking a significant turning point in Islamic history, which had been universally dominated by the Sunni sect until that period. It also marked a significant turning point in Iranian history, having been the nation's first demographic change since the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Shi'ism</span> Prejudice, hatred of, discrimination or violence against Shias

Anti-Shi'ism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Shia Muslims because of their religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural heritage. The term was first used by Shia Rights Watch in 2011, but it has been used in informal research and written in scholarly articles for decades.

Non-denominational Muslims, also known as non-sectarian Muslims, are Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches. Such Muslims do not think of themselves as belonging to a denomination but rather as "just Muslims" or "non-denominational Muslims."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Schools of Islamic theology</span> Set of theological beliefs in the Islamic faith

Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding creed. The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools; the extinct ones include the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini schools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Sunnism</span> Prejudice towards Sunni Muslims

Anti-Sunnism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Sunni Muslims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persecution of Sufis</span>

Persecution of Sufis over the course of centuries has included acts of religious discrimination, persecution, and violence both by Sunni and Shia Muslims, such as destruction of Sufi shrines, tombs and mosques, suppression of Sufi orders, murder, and terrorism against adherents of Sufism in a number of Muslim-majority countries. The Republic of Turkey banned all Sufi orders and abolished their institutions in 1925, after Sufis opposed the new secular order. The Islamic Republic of Iran has harassed Sufis, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "governance of the jurist".

References

  1. ↑ "Bangladesh: Breach of Faith". Hrw.org. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
  2. ↑ Jamaat-i-Islami Federal Research Division US Library of Congress
  3. ↑ Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan: An Analysis Under International Law and International Relations
  4. ↑ Ordinance XX
  5. 1 2 "Islamic caste." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006
  6. 1 2 Burton-Page, J., Hindū, Encyclopaedia of Islam . Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.
  7. ↑ Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66
  8. 1 2 Singh Sikand, Yoginder. "Caste in Indian Muslim Society". Hamdard University. Retrieved 18 October 2006.
  9. 1 2 Sajida Sultana Alvi, Advice on the art of governance, an Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes P122, State University of New York Press, ISBN   0-88706-918-5
  10. ↑ Ahmad, Imtiaz, "The Ashraf-Ajlaf dichotomy in Muslim social structure in India", Indian economic and social history review 33 (1966) pgs 268-78
  11. ↑ Sinnett, William M. (2009). Audit fee survey : May 2009. FERF. ISBN   978-1-4416-2268-6. OCLC   437925442.
  12. 1 2 Das (1996) , pp. 138–139
  13. 1 2 Das (1996) , p. 124
  14. ↑ Das (1996) , p. 143
  15. ↑ "Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?".
  16. 1 2 Ambedkar, Bhimrao. Pakistan or the Partition of India. Thackers Publishers.
  17. 1 2 Web resource for Pakistan or the Partition of India
  18. ↑ Dereserve these myths Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine by Tanweer Fazal,Indian express
  19. ↑ Daniel Pipes (1992). Greater Syria. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN   978-0-19-536304-3.
  20. ↑ The Nusayris are more infidel than Jews or Christians, even more infidel than many polytheists. They have done greater harm to the community of Muhammad than have the warring infidels such as the Franks, the Turks, and others. To ignorant Muslims they pretend to be Shi’is, though in reality they do not believe in God or His prophet or His book…Whenever possible, they spill the blood of Muslims…They are always the worst enemies of the Muslims…war and punishment in accordance with Islamic law against them are among the greatest of pious deeds and the most important obligations". – Ibn Taymiyyah, as quoted by Daniel Pipes (1992). Greater Syria. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN   9780195363043.
  21. ↑ S. Swayd, Samy (2009). The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography. University of Michigan Press. p. 25. ISBN   9780966293203.
  22. ↑ “Do not envy anyone who has not been harmed for the sake of this affair.” « A Resource of Translated Islamic Texts
  23. ↑ Ahmad ibn Hanbal – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  24. ↑ Science, civilization and society
  25. ↑ Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila
  26. ↑ St Thomas More Studies Archived 2011-10-02 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ The Ottoman Conquest
  28. ↑ Virani, Shafique N. (2011). "Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community". The Journal of Asian Studies. 70 (1): 99–139. doi:10.1017/S0021911810002974. ISSN   0021-9118. S2CID   143431047.
  29. ↑ RELIGION-PAKISTAN: Shia-Sunni Tensions Surface on Campus Archived 2012-01-15 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ↑ BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Hazara people's long suffering
  31. ↑ BBC NEWS | Middle East | Crushing Iraq's human mosaic
  32. ↑ Civil War
  33. ↑ March 14, 2008 The Independent/UK "The Cult of the Suicide Bomber" by Robert Fisk "month-long investigation by The Independent, culling four Arabic-language newspapers, official Iraqi statistics, two Beirut news agencies and Western reports"
  34. ↑ over half of the 20,000 fatalities worldwide from terrorism in 2006 occurred in Iraq according to the American National Counterterrorism Center Report on Terrorist Incidents 2006 p.3 Archived March 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  35. ↑ Al Jazeera English – News – Car Bomb Blast Near Iraq Shrine
  36. ↑ Iraqi funeral procession bombed; at least 26 killed
  37. ↑ Nasr (2007) , p. 203
  38. ↑ Arshin Adib-Moghaddam (2017), Psycho-nationalism, Cambridge University Press, p. 40, ISBN   9781108423076, Shah Ismail pursued a relentless campaign of forced conversion of the majority Sunni population in Iran to (Twelver) Shia Islam...
  39. ↑ Conversion and Islam in the Early Modern Mediterranean: The Lure of the Other, Routledge, 2017, p. 92, ISBN   9781317159780
  40. ↑ Islam: Art and Architecture, Könemann, 2004, p. 501, ISBN   9783833111785, Shah persecuted the philosophers, mystics, and Sufis who had been promoted by his grandfather, and unleashed fanatical campaigns of forcible conversion on Sunnis, Jews, Christians and other religious minorities
  41. ↑ Melissa L. Rossi (2008), What Every American Should Know about the Middle East, Penguin, ISBN   9780452289598, Forced conversion in the Safavid Empire made Persia for the first time dominantly Shia and left a lasting mark: Persia, now Iran, has been dominantly Shia ever since, and for centuries the only country to have a ruling Shia majority.
  42. ↑ The modern Middle East: a political history since the First World War. Mehran Kamrava, p. 29.
  43. ↑ Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution]. Nikki R Keddie, Yann Richard, pp. 13, 20
  44. ↑ The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern. Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, p. 360.
  45. ↑ Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Steven R Ward, pg.43
  46. ↑ Iran: a short history: from Islamization to the present. Monika Gronke, p. 91.
  47. ↑ The Judeo-Persian poet ‘Emrānī and his "Book of treasure": ‘Emrānī's Ganǰ… 'Emrānī, David Yeroushalmi, p. 20.
  48. ↑ A new introduction to Islam. Daniel W Brown, p. 191.
  49. ↑ Encyclopaedic Historiography of the Muslim World. NK Singh, A Samiuddin, p. 90.
  50. ↑ The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. Francis Robinson, p. 72.
  51. ↑ Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Steven R. Ward, p. 44.
  52. ↑ Iran and America: re-kindling a love lost]. Badi Badiozamani, pp. 174–5.
  53. ↑ The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. Francis Robinson, p. 72.
  54. ↑ Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict. William Spencer, p. 51.
  55. ↑ Culture and customs of Iran. Elton L Daniel, 'Alī Akbar Mahdī, p. 185.
  56. ↑ Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict. William Spencer, p. 51.
  57. ↑ Fairbank, Liu & Twitchett (1980) , p. 223
  58. ↑ Fairbank, Liu & Twitchett (1980) , p. 224
  59. ↑ new global threat: Transnational Salafis and Jihad, The Middle East Policy
  60. ↑ House of Commons – Foreign Affairs – Minutes of Evidence
  61. ↑ BARRY RUBIN (2000). Guide to Islamist Movements. M.E. Sharpe. p. 79. ISBN   0-7656-1747-1 . Retrieved 2010-06-28.

Bibliography

  • Das, Arbind (1996). Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis. Delhi: Pratibha Publications. ISBN   81-85268-45-2.
  • Fairbank, John King; Liu, Kwang-ching; Twitchett, Denis Crispin (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0-521-22029-7.
  • Nasr, Vali (2007). The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN   9780393066401.
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