Planetary surface

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Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin walking on the surface of the Moon, which consists of lunar regolith (photographed by Neil Armstrong, July 1969). Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg
Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin walking on the surface of the Moon, which consists of lunar regolith (photographed by Neil Armstrong, July 1969).
OSIRIS-REx collecting a surface sample from asteroid 101955 Bennu in 2020 -- (Full-sized image) OSIRIS-REX SamCam TAGSAM Event 2020-10-20 small.gif
OSIRIS-REx collecting a surface sample from asteroid 101955 Bennu in 2020
— (Full-sized image)

A planetary surface is where the solid or liquid material of certain types of astronomical objects contacts the atmosphere or outer space. Planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of planetary mass, including terrestrial planets (including Earth), dwarf planets, natural satellites, planetesimals and many other small Solar System bodies (SSSBs). [1] [2] [3] The study of planetary surfaces is a field of planetary geology known as surface geology, but also a focus on a number of fields including planetary cartography, topography, geomorphology, atmospheric sciences, and astronomy. Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term landing is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached.

Contents

In differentiated bodies, the surface is where the crust meets the planetary boundary layer. Anything below this is regarded as being sub-surface or sub-marine. Most bodies more massive than super-Earths, including stars and gas giants, as well as smaller gas dwarfs, transition contiguously between phases, including gas, liquid, and solid. As such, they are generally regarded as lacking surfaces.

Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it is the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of Earth and the Moon. The vast distances and complexities of space makes direct exploration of even near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via space probes.

Indirect observations by flyby or orbit currently provide insufficient information to confirm the composition and properties of planetary surfaces. Much of what is known is from the use of techniques such as astronomical spectroscopy and sample return. Lander spacecraft have explored the surfaces of planets Mars and Venus. Mars is the only other planet to have had its surface explored by a mobile surface probe (rover). Titan is the only non-planetary object of planetary mass to have been explored by lander. Landers have explored several smaller bodies including 433 Eros (2001), 25143 Itokawa (2005), Tempel 1 (2005), 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (2014), 162173 Ryugu (2018) and 101955 Bennu (2020). Surface samples have been collected from the Moon (returned 1969), 25143 Itokawa (returned 2010), 162173 Ryugu and 101955 Bennu.

Distribution and conditions

Planetary surfaces are found throughout the Solar System, from the inner terrestrial planets, to the asteroid belt, the natural satellites of the gas giant planets and beyond to the Trans-Neptunian objects. Surface conditions, temperatures and terrain vary significantly due to a number of factors including Albedo often generated by the surfaces itself. Measures of surface conditions include surface area, surface gravity, surface temperature and surface pressure. Surface stability may be affected by erosion through Aeolian processes, hydrology, subduction, volcanism, sediment or seismic activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.

Exploration

First self-propelled flying extraterrestrial probe Ingenuity on Mars, hovering over its serface and being watched by its parent rover Perseverance rover. HSF 0163 0681410921 308ECM N0110001HELI00000 000085J Perseverance Spotted By Ingenuity's colour camera On Its 11th Flight.gif
First self-propelled flying extraterrestrial probe Ingenuity on Mars, hovering over its serface and being watched by its parent rover Perseverance rover.

Distance, gravity, atmospheric conditions (extremely low or extremely high atmospheric pressure) and unknown factors make exploration both costly and risky. This necessitates the space probes for early exploration of planetary surfaces. Many probes are stationary have a limited study range and generally survive on extraterrestrial surfaces for a short period, however mobile probes (rovers) have surveyed larger surface areas. Sample return missions allow scientist to study extraterrestrial surface materials on Earth without having to send a crewed mission, however is generally only feasible for objects with low gravity and atmosphere.

Past missions

The first extraterrestrial planetary surface to be explored was the lunar surface by Luna 2 in 1959. The first and only human exploration of an extraterrestrial surface was the Moon, the Apollo program included the first moonwalk on July 20, 1969, and successful return of extraterrestrial surface samples to Earth. Venera 7 was the first landing of a probe on another planet on December 15, 1970. Mars 3 "soft landed" and returned data from Mars on August 22, 1972, the first rover on Mars was Mars Pathfinder in 1997, the Mars Exploration Rover has been studying the surface of the red planet since 2004. NEAR Shoemaker was the first to soft land on an asteroid – 433 Eros in February 2001 while Hayabusa was the first to return samples from 25143 Itokawa on 13 June 2010. Huygens soft landed and returned data from Titan on January 14, 2005.

There have been many failed attempts, more recently Fobos-Grunt, a sample return mission aimed at exploring the surface of Phobos.

Forms

The surfaces of Solar System objects, other than the four Outer Solar System gas planets, are mostly solid, with few having liquid surfaces.

In general terrestrial planets have either surfaces of ice, or surface crusts of rock or regolith, with distinct terrains. Water ice predominates surfaces in the Solar System beyond the frost line in the Outer Solar System, with a range of icy celestial bodies. Rock and regolith is common in the Inner Solar System until Mars.

The only Solar System object having a mostly liquid surface is Earth, with its global ocean surface comprising 70.8 % of Earth's surface, filling its oceanic basins and covering Earth's oceanic crust, making Earth an ocean world. The remaining part of its surface consists of rocky or organic carbon and silicon rich compounds.

Perspective radar view of Titan's Bolsena Lacus (lower right) and other northern hemisphere hydrocarbon lakes Liquid lakes on titan.jpg
Perspective radar view of Titan's Bolsena Lacus (lower right) and other northern hemisphere hydrocarbon lakes

Liquid water as surface, beside on Earth, has only been found, as seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes, as well as past occurrences, and suspected at the habitable zones of other planetary systems. Surface liquid of any kind, has been found notably on Titan, having large methane lakes, some of which are the largest known lakes in the Solar System.

Volcanism can cause flows such as lava on the surface of geologically active bodies (the largest being the Amirani (volcano) flow on Io). Many of Earth's Igneous rocks are formed through processes rare elsewhere, such as the presence of volcanic magma and water. Surface mineral deposits such as olivine and hematite discovered on Mars by lunar rovers provide direct evidence of past stable water on the surface of Mars.

Apart from water, many other abundant surface materials are unique to Earth in the Solar System as they are not only organic but have formed due to the presence of life – these include carbonate hardgrounds, limestone, vegetation and artificial structures although the latter is present due to probe exploration (see also List of artificial objects on extra-terrestrial surfaces).

Extraterrestrial Organic compounds

Increasingly organic compounds are being found on objects throughout the Solar System. While unlikely to indicate the presence of extraterrestrial life, all known life is based on these compounds. Complex carbon molecules may form through various complex chemical interactions or delivered through impacts with small solar system objects and can combine to form the "building blocks" of Carbon-based life. As organic compounds are often volatile, their persistence as a solid or liquid on a planetary surface is of scientific interest as it would indicate an intrinsic source (such as from the object's interior) or residue from larger quantities of organic material preserved through special circumstances over geological timescales, or an extrinsic source (such as from past or recent collision with other objects). [6] Radiation makes the detection of organic matter difficult, making its detection on atmosphereless objects closer to the Sun extremely difficult. [7]

Examples of likely occurrences include:

On Mars

Martian exploration including samples taken by on the ground rovers and spectroscopy from orbiting satellites have revealed the presence of a number of complex organic molecules, some of which could be biosignatures in the search for life.

On Ceres

On Enceladus

On Comet 67P

The space probe Philae (spacecraft) discovered the following organic compounds on the surface of Comet 67P:. [24] [25] [26]

Inorganic materials

Sand dunes in the Namib Desert on Earth (top), compared with dunes in Belet on Titan Titan dunes crop.png
Sand dunes in the Namib Desert on Earth (top), compared with dunes in Belet on Titan

The following is a non-exhaustive list of surface materials that occur on more than one planetary surface along with their locations in order of distance from the Sun. Some have been detected by spectroscopy or direct imaging from orbit or flyby.

Rare inorganics

Carbon Ices

Landforms

Pluto's Tombaugh Regio (photographed by New Horizons flyby on July 14, 2015) appears to exhibit geomorphological features previously thought to be unique to Earth. NH-Pluto-SputnikPlanum-HillaryMontes-NorgayMontes-20150714.jpg
Pluto's Tombaugh Regio (photographed by New Horizons flyby on July 14, 2015) appears to exhibit geomorphological features previously thought to be unique to Earth.

Common rigid surface features include:

Surface of gas giants

Normally, gas giants are considered to not have a surface, although they might have a solid core of rock or various types of ice, or a liquid core of metallic hydrogen. However, the core, if it exists, does not include enough of the planet's mass to be actually considered a surface. Some scientists consider the point at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 bar, equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at Earth's surface, to be the surface of the planet, if the planet has no clear rigid terrain. Therefore the location of the surface of terrestrial planets do not depend on an atmospheric pressure of 1 Bar, even if for example Venus has a thick atmosphere with pressures at Venus's surface increasing well above Earth's atmospheric pressure.

Life

Planetary surfaces are investigated for the presence of past or present extraterrestrial life. Thomas Gold expanded the field by advancing the possibility of life and a so-called deep biosphere below the surface of a celestial body, and not only on the surface. [53]

Surface chauvinism and surfacism

Furthermore, Thomas Gold has criticized science which only focuses on the surface and not below in its search of life as surface chauvinism. [53]

Similarly the focus on surface bound and territorial space advocacy, particularly for space colonization such as of Mars, has been named surfacism, neglecting interest for atmospheres and potential atmospheric human habitation, such as above the surface of Venus. [54] [55]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asteroid</span> Minor planets found within the inner Solar System

An asteroid is a minor planet—an object that is neither a true planet nor a comet—that orbits within the inner Solar System. They are rocky, metallic, or icy bodies with no atmosphere. The size and shape of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from small rubble piles under a kilometer across to Ceres, a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Planet</span> Large, round non-stellar astronomical object

A planet is a large, rounded astronomical body that is neither a star nor its remnant. The best available theory of planet formation is the nebular hypothesis, which posits that an interstellar cloud collapses out of a nebula to create a young protostar orbited by a protoplanetary disk. Planets grow in this disk by the gradual accumulation of material driven by gravity, a process called accretion. The Solar System has at least eight planets: the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, and the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar System</span> The Sun and objects orbiting it

The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it. It was formed 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, forming the Sun and a protoplanetary disc. The Sun is an ordinary main sequence star that maintains a balanced equilibrium by the fusion of hydrogen into helium at its core, releasing this energy from its outer photosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triton (moon)</span> Largest moon of Neptune

Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It is the only moon of Neptune massive enough to be rounded under its own gravity and hosts a thin but well-structured atmosphere. Triton orbits Neptune in a retrograde orbit—an orbit in the direction opposite to its planet's rotation—the only large moon in the Solar System to do so. Triton is thought to have once been a dwarf planet, captured from the Kuiper belt into Neptune orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2 Pallas</span> Third-largest asteroid

Pallas is the third-largest asteroid in the Solar System by volume and mass. It is the second asteroid to have been discovered, after Ceres, and is a likely remnant protoplanet. Like Ceres, it is believed to have a mineral composition similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, though significantly less hydrated than Ceres. It is 79% the mass of Vesta and 22% the mass of Ceres, constituting an estimated 7% of the mass of the asteroid belt. Its estimated volume is equivalent to a sphere 507 to 515 kilometers in diameter, 90–95% the volume of Vesta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terrestrial planet</span> Planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals

A terrestrial planet, telluric planet, or rocky planet, is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate, rocks or metals. Within the Solar System, the terrestrial planets accepted by the IAU are the inner planets closest to the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Among astronomers who use the geophysical definition of a planet, two or three planetary-mass satellites – Earth's Moon, Io, and sometimes Europa – may also be considered terrestrial planets. The large rocky asteroids Pallas and Vesta are sometimes included as well, albeit rarely. The terms "terrestrial planet" and "telluric planet" are derived from Latin words for Earth, as these planets are, in terms of structure, Earth-like. Terrestrial planets are generally studied by geologists, astronomers, and geophysicists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tholin</span> Class of molecules formed by ultraviolet irradiation of organic compounds

Tholins are a wide variety of organic compounds formed by solar ultraviolet or cosmic ray irradiation of simple carbon-containing compounds such as carbon dioxide, methane or ethane, often in combination with nitrogen or water. Tholins are disordered polymer-like materials made of repeating chains of linked subunits and complex combinations of functional groups, typically nitriles and hydrocarbons, and their degraded forms such as amines and phenyls. Tholins do not form naturally on modern-day Earth, but they are found in great abundance on the surfaces of icy bodies in the outer Solar System, and as reddish aerosols in the atmospheres of outer Solar System planets and moons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cryovolcano</span> Type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water, ammonia or methane, instead of molten rock

A cryovolcano is a type of volcano that erupts gases and volatile material such as liquid water, ammonia, and hydrocarbons. The erupted material is collectively referred to as cryolava; it originates from a reservoir of subsurface cryomagma. Cryovolcanic eruptions can take many forms, such as fissure and curtain eruptions, effusive cryolava flows, and large-scale resurfacing, and can vary greatly in output volumes. Immediately after an eruption, cryolava quickly freezes, constructing geological features and altering the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceres (dwarf planet)</span> Dwarf planet in the asteroid belt

Ceres is a dwarf planet in the middle main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It was the first known asteroid, discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory in Sicily, and announced as a new planet. Ceres was later classified as an asteroid and then a dwarf planet, the only one inside Neptune's orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Formation and evolution of the Solar System</span> Modelling its structure and composition

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dwarf planet</span> Small planetary-mass object

A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit around the Sun, massive enough to be gravitationally rounded, but insufficient to achieve orbital dominance like the eight classical planets of the Solar System. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto, which for decades was regarded as a planet before the "dwarf" concept was adopted in 2006.

Extraterrestrial liquid water is water in its liquid state that naturally occurs outside Earth. It is a subject of wide interest because it is recognized as one of the key prerequisites for life as we know it and is thus surmised to be essential for extraterrestrial life.

The presence of water on the terrestrial planets of the Solar System varies with each planetary body, with the exact origins remaining unclear. Additionally, the terrestrial dwarf planet Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Minor planet</span> Astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is neither a planet or a comet

According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is exclusively classified as neither a planet nor a comet. Before 2006, the IAU officially used the term minor planet, but that year's meeting reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies (SSSBs). In contrast to the eight official planets of the Solar System, all minor planets fail to clear their orbital neighborhood.

In astronomy, a phase curve describes the brightness of a reflecting body as a function of its phase angle. The brightness usually refers the object's absolute magnitude, which, in turn, is its apparent magnitude at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Earth and Sun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Heavy Bombardment</span> Hypothesized astronomical event

The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), or lunar cataclysm, is a hypothesized astronomical event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years (Ga) ago, at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth. According to the hypothesis, during this interval, a disproportionately large number of asteroids and comets collided into the terrestrial planets and their natural satellites in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These came from both post-accretion and planetary instability-driven populations of impactors. Although it gained widespread credance, definitive evidence remained elusive. However, recent re-appraisal of the cosmo-chemical constraints suggest there was no late spike in the bombardment rate.

Planetary oceanography, also called astro-oceanography or exo-oceanography, is the study of oceans on planets and moons other than Earth. Unlike other planetary sciences like astrobiology, astrochemistry, and planetary geology, it only began after the discovery of underground oceans in Saturn's moon Titan and Jupiter's moon Europa. This field remains speculative until further missions reach the oceans beneath the rock or ice layer of the moons. There are many theories about oceans or even ocean worlds of celestial bodies in the Solar System, from oceans made of diamond in Neptune to a gigantic ocean of liquid hydrogen that may exist underneath Jupiter's surface.

Comparative planetary science or comparative planetology is a branch of space science and planetary science in which different natural processes and systems are studied by their effects and phenomena on and between multiple bodies. The planetary processes in question include geology, hydrology, atmospheric physics, and interactions such as impact cratering, space weathering, and magnetospheric physics in the solar wind, and possibly biology, via astrobiology.

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