Rhodotorula

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Rhodotorula
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa colonies 45.jpg
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa colonies on Sabouraud agar (with 2 % glucose)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Microbotryomycetes
Order: Sporidiobolales
Family: Sporidiobolaceae
Genus: Rhodotorula
F.C. Harrison (1927)
Type species
Rhodotorula glutinis
(Fresen.) F.C. Harrison (1928)
Synonyms

ChromotorulaF.C. Harrison (1927)
RhodosporidiumI. Banno (1967)

Contents

.Rhodotorula mucilaginosa cells, Methylene blue stain, magnification 400x Rhodotorula mucilaginosa 400x img430.jpg
.Rhodotorula mucilaginosa cells, Methylene blue stain, magnification 400x

Rhodotorula is a genus of fungi in the class Microbotryomycetes. Most species are known in their yeast states which produce orange to red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). The colour is the result of pigments that the yeast creates to block out certain wavelengths of light (620–750 nm) that would otherwise be damaging to the cell. Hyphal states, formerly placed in the genus Rhodosporidium, give rise to teliospores from which laterally septate basidia emerge, producing sessile basidiospores. Species occur worldwide and can be isolated from air, water, soil, and other substrates.

Taxonomy

Rhodotorula was created in 1927 by Canadian microbiologist Francis C. Harrison to accommodate red-pigmented yeasts (Ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhodon) means rose-coloured). Subsequent authors added over 150 additional species to the genus. Molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has, however, shown that Rhodotorula sensu lato is polyphyletic (a mix of unrelated species). Consequently the majority of species formerly placed in Rhodotorula have been transferred to genera in other orders including the Agaricostilbales, Cystobasidiales, Cystofilobasidiales, Filobasidiales, Kriegeriales, Microstromatales, Tremellales, Trichosporonales, and Ustilaginales. [1] [2] Only a small, monophyletic group of 20 or so species related to the type, Rhodotorula glutinis , remain in Rhodotorula sensu stricto. [1]

In 1967 Japanese mycologist Isao Banno introduced the genus Rhodosporidium for the sexual state of Rhodotorula, producing hyphae and basidiospores. [3] Following changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the practice of giving different names to teleomorph and anamorph forms of the same fungus was discontinued, meaning that Rhodosporidium became a synonym of the earlier name Rhodotorula. [1]

Habitat

Rhodotorula species are common environmental inhabitants. They can be cultured from soil, water, milk, fruit juice, and air samples. [4] They are able to scavenge nitrogenous compounds from their environment remarkably well, growing even in air that has been carefully cleaned of any fixed nitrogen contaminants. In such conditions, the nitrogen content of the dry weight of the Rhodotorula species can drop as low as 1%, compared to around 14% for most bacteria growing in normal conditions. [5]

Pathology

Only Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and R. glutinis have been known to cause disease in humans. There were no reported cases of Rhodotorula infections before 1985. [4] There were however forty-three reported cases of Rhodotorula bloodstream infections (BSIs) between 1960 and 2000. [6] Rhodotorula species are most commonly found in patients who are immunosuppressed and/or are using foreign-body technology such as central venous catheters. [6] Rhodotorula infection is commonly treated by removing the catheter and the use of anti-fungals. Rhodotorula species are susceptible to amphotericin B and flucytosine. [6]

Rhodotorula species can also cause infections in animals. There have been reports of skin infections in chickens and sea animals and lung infections and otitis in sheep and cattle. [4]

Potential in bioremediation

One area in which Rhodotorula species may become of importance is in bioremediation, especially of contaminated water sites. As with bacteria, fungi can naturally develop modified metabolism to deal with environmental contaminants, and could then be used in bioremediation. One main target is often polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) since they often persist in the environment and have high levels of toxicity. Through sediment analysis and testing of contaminated waters Rhodotorula species were found to be common in contaminated sites. [7] It was noted in samples taken from contaminated waters that Rhodotorula species had the ability to degrade petroleum compounds. [8] These studies as well as others suggest that Rhodotorula species may be good candidates for bioremediation of polluted waters for PAHs. In more directed studies a number of species of Rhodotorula were found to be able to degrade a number of specific contaminants. For example, R. glutinis and R. rubra (= R. mucilaginosa) have both been found to have a high ability to degrade phenanthrene. [9] In a mixed fungal community Rhodotorula species contributed to effective degradation of low molecular weight PAHs, and although bacterial communities alone were not able to, the fungal communities also degraded high molecular weight PAHs (more than 3 benzene rings) such as chrysene and benzo(a)pyrene. [10] A strain of R. taiwanensis was shown to grow at constant gamma radiation 66 Gy/h at pH 2.3 and in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium compounds, and forming biofilms under high-level chronic radiation and low pH, making it a promising candidate for bioremediation of acidic radioactive waste sites. [11]

Species

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioremediation</span> Process used to treat contaminated media such as water and soil

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system, living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc., in natural or artificial settings. The natural ability of organisms to adsorb, accumulate, and degrade common and emerging pollutants has attracted the use of biological resources in treatment of contaminated environment. In comparison to conventional physicochemical treatment methods bioremediation may offer considerable advantages as it aims to be sustainable, eco-friendly, cheap, and scalable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycoremediation</span> Process of using fungi to degrade or sequester contaminants in the environment

Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides in land, fresh water, and marine environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agaricostilbomycetes</span> Class of fungi

The Agaricostilbomycetes are a class of fungi in the subdivision Pucciniomycotina of the Basidiomycota. The class consists of a single order, six families, and 15 genera. Most species are known only from their yeast states. Where known, basidiocarps (fruitbodies) are typically small and stilboid (pin-shaped).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sporidiobolales</span> Order of fungi

The Sporidiobolales are an order of fungi in the subdivision Pucciniomycotina. The order contains a single family, the Sporidiobolaceae, which currently contains three genera. Most species are known only from their yeast states. Hyphal states produce teliospores from which auricularioid basidia emerge, bearing basidiospores. Species occur worldwide and have been isolated from a wide variety of substrates. Two species, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and R. glutinis, have been known to cause disease in humans.

<i>Sporobolomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Sporobolomyces is a genus of fungi in the subdivision Pucciniomycotina. Species produce both yeast states and hyphal states. The latter form teliospores from which auricularioid (tubular and laterally septate) basidia emerge, bearing basidiospores. Yeast colonies are salmon-pink to red. Sporobolomyces species occur worldwide and have been isolated (as yeasts) from a wide variety of substrates. They produce ballistoconidia that are bilaterally symmetrical, they have Coenzyme Q10 or Coenzyme Q10(H2) as their major ubiquinone, they lack xylose in whole-cell hydrolysates, and they cannot ferment sugars. One species, Sporobolomyces salmonicolor, is known to cause disease in humans.

<i>Rhodotorula glutinis</i> Species of fungus

Rhodotorula glutinis is the type species of the genus Rhodotorula, a basidiomycetous genus of pink yeasts which contains 370 species. Heterogeneity of the genus has made its classification difficult with five varieties having been recognized; however, as of 2011, all are considered to represent a single taxon. The fungus is a common colonist of animals, foods and environmental materials. It can cause opportunistic infections, notably blood infection in the setting of significant underlying disease. It has been used industrially in the production of carotenoid pigments and as a biocontrol agent for post-harvest spoilage diseases of fruits.

Bioremediation of petroleum contaminated environments is a process in which the biological pathways within microorganisms or plants are used to degrade or sequester toxic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and other volatile organic compounds found within fossil fuels. Oil spills happen frequently at varying degrees along with all aspects of the petroleum supply chain, presenting a complex array of issues for both environmental and public health. While traditional cleanup methods such as chemical or manual containment and removal often result in rapid results, bioremediation is less labor-intensive, expensive, and averts chemical or mechanical damage. The efficiency and effectiveness of bioremediation efforts are based on maintaining ideal conditions, such as pH, RED-OX potential, temperature, moisture, oxygen abundance, nutrient availability, soil composition, and pollutant structure, for the desired organism or biological pathway to facilitate reactions. Three main types of bioremediation used for petroleum spills include microbial remediation, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation. Bioremediation has been implemented in various notable oil spills including the 1989 Exxon Valdez incident where the application of fertilizer on affected shoreline increased rates of biodegradation.

Gordonia sp. nov. Q8 is a bacterium in the phylum of Actinomycetota. It was discovered in 2017 as one of eighteen new species isolated from the Jiangsu Wei5 oilfield in East China with the potential for bioremediation. Strain Q8 is rod-shaped and gram-positive with dimensions 1.0–4.0 μm × 0.5–1.2 μm and an optimal growth temperature of 40 °C. Phylogenetically, it is most closely related to Gordonia paraffinivorans and Gordonia alkaliphila, both of which are known bioremediators. Q8 was assigned as a novel species based on a <70% ratio of DNA homology with other Gordonia bacteria.

Colacogloea is a genus of fungi belonging to the class Microbotryomycetes. Most species in the genus are known only from their yeast states. Where known, basidiocarps have auricularioid basidia and occur as parasites on or in the fruit bodies of other fungi.

Hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria are a heterogeneous group of prokaryotes which can degrade and utilize hydrocarbon compounds as source of carbon and energy. Despite being present in most of environments around the world, several of these specialized bacteria live in the sea and have been isolated from polluted seawater.

<i>Phaeotremella</i> Genus of fungi

Phaeotremella is a genus of fungi in the family Phaeotremellaceae. All Phaeotremella species are parasites of other fungi and produce anamorphic yeast states. Basidiocarps, when produced, are gelatinous and are colloquially classed among the "jelly fungi". Fifteen or so species of Phaeotremella are currently recognized worldwide. Tremella sanguinea, shown to be a Phaeotremella species by DNA sequencing, is cultivated in China as an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine.

The Holtermanniales are an order in the fungal class Tremellomycetes. The order contains two genera. Species of Holtermannia produce groups of horn-like gelatinous basidiocarps on wood and have associated yeast states. Species of Holtermaniella are only known as yeasts.

<i>Naematelia</i> Genus of fungi

Naematelia is a genus of fungi in the family Naemateliaceae. All Naematelia species are parasites of other fungi and produce anamorphic yeast states. When produced, Basidiocarps ,, are gelatinous and are colloquially classed among the "jelly fungi."Four species of Naematelia are currently recognized worldwide. One species, Naematelia aurantialba, is commercially cultivated for food.

Pseudotremella is a genus of fungi in the family Bulleraceae. All Pseudotremella species are parasites of other fungi and produce anamorphic yeast states. Basidiocarps, when produced, are gelatinous and are colloquially classed among the "jelly fungi". Four species of Pseudotremella are currently recognized worldwide. Two of these species are, as yet, only known from their yeast states.

The Trichosporonaceae are a family of fungi in the order Trichosporonales. The family currently contains six genera. Species are not known to produce basidiocarps, but exist as yeasts or produce septate hyphae with arthroconidia. Several species are human pathogens.

Candida catenulata is a yeast-form fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. It is distributed globally and commonly found on the skin of humans and animals, in soil, and in dairy products.

Cystobasidium is a genus of fungi in the order Cystobasidiales. The type species is a fungal parasite forming small gelatinous basidiocarps on various ascomycetous fungi on dung. Microscopically, it has auricularioid basidia producing basidiospores that germinate by budding off yeast cells. Other species are known only from their yeast states. The yeasts Cystobasidium minutum and C. calyptogenae are rare but known human pathogens.

Cystobasidium fimetarium is a species of fungus in the order Cystobasidiales. It is a fungal parasite forming small gelatinous basidiocarps on various ascomycetous fungi on dung. Microscopically, it has auricularioid basidia producing basidiospores that germinate by budding off yeast cells. The species is known from Europe and North America.

Occultifur is a genus of fungi in the family Cystobasidiaceae. Species are parasites of other fungi and, microscopically, have auricularioid basidia and basidiospores that germinate by yeast cells. Several species are currently only known from their yeast states. The genus is distributed worldwide.

Slooffia is a genus of fungi in the subdivision Pucciniomycotina. Most species are known only from their yeast states. Known hyphal states produce auricularioid basidia, bearing basidiospores, and are parasitic on other fungi.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Wang Q, Yurkov AM, Göker M, Lumbsch HT, Leavitt SD, Groenewald M, Theelen B, Liu X, Boekhout T, Bai F (2016). "Phylogenetic classification of yeasts and related taxa within Pucciniomycotina". Studies in Mycology. 81: 149–189. doi:10.1016/j.simyco.2015.12.002. PMC   4777780 . PMID   26951631.
  2. ↑ Li A, Yuan F, Groenewald M, Bensch K, Yurkov AM, Li K, Han P, Guo L, Aime MC, Sampaio JP, Jindamorakot S, Turchetti B, Inacio J, Fungsin B, Wang Q, Bai F (2020). "Diversity and phylogeny of basidiomycetous yeasts from plant leaves and soil: Proposal of two new orders, three new families, eight new genera and one hundred and seven new species". Studies in Mycology. 96: 17–140. doi:10.1016/j.simyco.2020.01.002. PMC   7082220 . PMID   32206137.
  3. ↑ Banno I (1967). "Studies on the sexuality of Rhodotorula". J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 13: 167–196.
  4. 1 2 3 Wirth F, Goldani LZ (September 2012). "Epidemiology of Rhodotorula: an emerging pathogen". Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases. 2012: 465717. doi: 10.1155/2012/465717 . PMC   3469092 . PMID   23091485.
  5. ↑ Postgate, John: "The Outer Reaches of Life", page 132-134. Cambridge University Press, 1994
  6. 1 2 3 Zaas AK, Boyce M, Schell W, Lodge BA, Miller JL, Perfect JR (November 2003). "Risk of fungemia due to Rhodotorula and antifungal susceptibility testing of Rhodotorula isolates". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 41 (11): 5233–5. doi:10.1128/jcm.41.11.5233-5235.2003. PMC   262498 . PMID   14605170.
  7. ↑ Zhang H, Huang T, Chen S (February 2015). "Ignored sediment fungal populations in water supply reservoirs are revealed by quantitative PCR and 454 pyrosequencing". BMC Microbiology. 15: 44. doi: 10.1186/s12866-015-0379-7 . PMC   4349462 . PMID   25886005.
  8. ↑ Bogusławska-Was E, Dabrowski W (July 2001). "The seasonal variability of yeasts and yeast-like organisms in water and bottom sediment of the Szczecin Lagoon". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 203 (5–6): 451–8. doi:10.1078/1438-4639-00056. PMID   11556149.
  9. ↑ MacGillivray AR, Shiaris MP (May 1993). "Biotransformation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by yeasts isolated from coastal sediments". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 59 (5): 1613–8. Bibcode:1993ApEnM..59.1613M. doi:10.1128/AEM.59.5.1613-1618.1993. PMC   182127 . PMID   8517753.
  10. ↑ Hesham A, Khan S, Tao Y, Li D, Zhang Y, Yang M (September 2012). "Biodegradation of high molecular weight PAHs using isolated yeast mixtures: application of meta-genomic methods for community structure analyses". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 19 (8): 3568–78. doi:10.1007/s11356-012-0919-8. PMID   22535224. S2CID   8263841.
  11. ↑ Tkavc R, Matrosova VY, Grichenko OE, Gostinčar C, Volpe RP, Klimenkova P, Gaidamakova EK, Zhou CE, Stewart BJ, Lyman MG, Malfatti SA, Rubinfeld B, Courtot M, Singh J, Dalgard CL, Hamilton T, Frey KG, Gunde-Cimerman N, Dugan L, Daly MJ (2017). "Rhodotorula taiwanensis MD1149". Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 2528. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02528 . PMC   5766836 . PMID   29375494.
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