Roller chain

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Roller chain and sprocket Chain.gif
Roller chain and sprocket
The sketch of roller chain, Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Atlanticus The sketch (drawing) of roller chain, Leonardo da Vinci.jpg
The sketch of roller chain, Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Atlanticus

Roller chain or bush roller chain is the type of chain drive most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power on many kinds of domestic, industrial and agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire- and tube-drawing machines, printing presses, cars, motorcycles, and bicycles. It consists of a series of short cylindrical rollers held together by side links. It is driven by a toothed wheel called a sprocket. It is a simple, reliable, and efficient [1] means of power transmission.

Contents

Sketches by Leonardo da Vinci in the 16th century show a chain with a roller bearing. [2] In 1800, James Fussell patented a roller chain on development of his balance lock [3] and in 1880 Hans Renold patented a bush roller chain. [4]

Construction

Two different sizes of roller chain, showing construction. Kettenvergleich.jpg
Two different sizes of roller chain, showing construction.

There are two types of links alternating in the bush roller chain. The first type is inner links, having two inner plates held together by two sleeves or bushings upon which rotate two rollers. Inner links alternate with the second type, the outer links, consisting of two outer plates held together by pins passing through the bushings of the inner links. The "bushingless" roller chain is similar in operation though not in construction; instead of separate bushings or sleeves holding the inner plates together, the plate has a tube stamped into it protruding from the hole which serves the same purpose. This has the advantage of removing one step in assembly of the chain.

The roller chain design reduces friction compared to simpler designs, resulting in higher efficiency and less wear. The original power transmission chain varieties lacked rollers and bushings, with both the inner and outer plates held by pins which directly contacted the sprocket teeth; however this configuration exhibited extremely rapid wear of both the sprocket teeth and the plates where they pivoted on the pins. This problem was partially solved by the development of bushed chains, with the pins holding the outer plates passing through bushings or sleeves connecting the inner plates. This distributed the wear over a greater area; however the teeth of the sprockets still wore more rapidly than is desirable, from the sliding friction against the bushings. The addition of rollers surrounding the bushing sleeves of the chain and provided rolling contact with the teeth of the sprockets resulting in excellent resistance to wear of both sprockets and chain as well. There is even very low friction, as long as the chain is sufficiently lubricated. Continuous, clean, lubrication of roller chains is of primary importance for efficient operation, as is correct tensioning. [5]

Lubrication

Many driving chains (for example, in factory equipment, or driving a camshaft inside an internal combustion engine) operate in clean environments, and thus the wearing surfaces (that is, the pins and bushings) are safe from precipitation and airborne grit, many even in a sealed environment such as an oil bath. Some roller chains are designed to have o-rings built into the space between the outside link plate and the inside roller link plates. Chain manufacturers began to include this feature in 1971 after the application was invented by Joseph Montano while working for Whitney Chain of Hartford, Connecticut. O-rings were included as a way to improve lubrication to the links of power transmission chains, a service that is vitally important to extending their working life. These rubber fixtures form a barrier that holds factory applied lubricating grease inside the pin and bushing wear areas. Further, the rubber o-rings prevent dirt and other contaminants from entering inside the chain linkages, where such particles would otherwise cause significant wear. [6]

There are also many chains that have to operate in dirty conditions, and for size or operational reasons cannot be sealed. Examples include chains on farm equipment, bicycles, and chain saws. These chains will necessarily have relatively high rates of wear.

Many oil-based lubricants attract dirt and other particles, eventually forming an abrasive paste that will compound wear on chains. This problem can be reduced by use of a "dry" PTFE spray, which forms a solid film after application and repels both particles and moisture. [7]

Motorcycle chain lubrication

Chains operating at high speeds comparable to those on motorcycles should be used in conjunction with an oil bath. [8] For modern motorcycles this is not possible, and most motorcycle chains run unprotected. Thus, motorcycle chains tend to wear very quickly relative to other applications. They are subject to extreme forces and are exposed to rain, dirt, sand and road salt.

Motorcycle chains are part of the drive train to transmit the motor power to the back wheel. Properly lubricated chains can reach an efficiency of 98% or greater in the transmission. Unlubricated chains will significantly decrease performance and increase chain and sprocket wear. [1]

Two types of aftermarket lubricants are available for motorcycle chains: spray on lubricants and oil drip feed systems.

Variants

Layout of a roller chain: 1. Outer plate, 2. Inner plate, 3. Pin, 4. Bushing, 5. Roller Roller Chain Render (with numbers).png
Layout of a roller chain: 1. Outer plate, 2. Inner plate, 3. Pin, 4. Bushing, 5. Roller

If the chain is not being used for a high wear application (for instance if it is just transmitting motion from a hand-operated lever to a control shaft on a machine, or a sliding door on an oven), then one of the simpler types of chain may still be used. Conversely, where extra strength but the smooth drive of a smaller pitch is required, the chain may be "siamesed"; instead of just two rows of plates on the outer sides of the chain, there may be three ("duplex"), four ("triplex"), or more rows of plates running parallel, with bushings and rollers between each adjacent pair, and the same number of rows of teeth running in parallel on the sprockets to match. Timing chains on automotive engines, for example, typically have multiple rows of plates called strands.

Roller chain is made in several sizes, the most common American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards being 40, 50, 60, and 80. The first digits indicate the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch, with the last digit being 0 for standard chain, 1 for lightweight chain, and 5 for bushed chain with no rollers. Thus, a chain with half-inch pitch is a No. 40 while a No. 160 sprocket has teeth spaced 2 inches apart, etc. Metric pitches are expressed in sixteenths of an inch; thus a metric No. 8 chain (08B-1) is equivalent to an ANSI No. 40. Most roller chain is made from plain carbon or alloy steel, but stainless steel is used in food processing machinery or other places where lubrication is a problem, and nylon or brass are occasionally seen for the same reason.

Roller chain is ordinarily hooked up using a master link (also known as a "connecting link"), which typically has one pin held by a horseshoe clip rather than friction fit, allowing it to be inserted or removed with simple tools. Chain with a removable link or pin is also known as "cottered chain", which allows the length of the chain to be adjusted. Half links (also known as "offsets") are available and are used to increase the length of the chain by a single roller. Riveted roller chain has the master link (also known as a "connecting link") "riveted" or mashed on the ends. These pins are made to be durable and are not removable. [10]

Horseshoe clip

A horseshoe clip is the U-shaped spring steel fitting that holds the side-plate of the joining (or "master") link formerly essential to complete the loop of a roller chain. The clip method is losing popularity as more and more chains are manufactured as endless loops not intended for maintenance. Modern motorcycles are often fitted with an endless chain but in the increasingly rare circumstances of the chain wearing out and needing to be replaced, a length of chain and a joining link (with horseshoe clip) will be provided as a spare. Changes in motorcycle suspension are tending to make this use less prevalent.

Common on older motorcycles and older bicycles (e.g. those with hub gears) this clip method cannot be used on bicycles fitted with derailleur gears, as the clip will tend to catch on the gear-changers.

In many cases, an endless chain cannot be replaced easily since it is linked into the frame of the machine (this is the case on the traditional bicycle, amongst other places). However, in some cases, a joining link with horseshoe clip cannot be used or is not preferred in the application either. In this case, a "soft link" is used, placed with a chain riveter and relying solely on friction. With modern materials and tools and skilled application this is a permanent repair having almost the same strength and life of the unbroken chain.

Use

An example of two 'ghost' sprockets tensioning a triplex roller chain system ROLL-RING im Triplexkettentrieb.gif
An example of two 'ghost' sprockets tensioning a triplex roller chain system
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZA195 front (cold) vector thrust nozzle - the nozzle is rotated by a chain drive from an air motor Vector-nozzle-sea-harrier-jet-common.jpg
Sea Harrier FA.2 ZA195 front (cold) vector thrust nozzle - the nozzle is rotated by a chain drive from an air motor

Wear

The effect of wear on a roller chain is to increase the pitch (spacing of the links), causing the chain to grow longer. Note that this is due to wear at the pivoting pins and bushes, not from actual stretching of the metal (as does happen to some flexible steel components such as the hand-brake cable of a motor vehicle).

With modern chains it is unusual for a chain (other than that of a bicycle) to wear until it breaks, since a worn chain leads to the rapid onset of wear on the teeth of the sprockets, with ultimate failure being the loss of all the teeth on the sprocket. The sprockets (in particular the smaller of the two) suffer a grinding motion that puts a characteristic hook shape into the driven face of the teeth. (This effect is made worse by a chain improperly tensioned, but is unavoidable no matter what care is taken). The worn teeth (and chain) no longer provides smooth transmission of power and this may become evident from the noise, the vibration or (in car engines using a timing chain) the variation in ignition timing seen with a timing light. Both sprockets and chain should be replaced in these cases, since a new chain on worn sprockets will not last long. However, in less severe cases it may be possible to save the larger of the two sprockets, since it is always the smaller one that suffers the most wear. Only in very light-weight applications such as a bicycle, or in extreme cases of improper tension, will the chain normally jump off the sprockets.

The lengthening due to wear of a chain is calculated by the following formula:

M = the length of a number of links measured

S = the number of links measured

P = Pitch

In industry, it is usual to monitor the movement of the chain tensioner (whether manual or automatic) or the exact length of a drive chain (one rule of thumb is to replace a roller chain which has elongated 3% on an adjustable drive or 1.5% on a fixed-center drive). A simpler method, particularly suitable for the cycle or motorcycle user, is to attempt to pull the chain away from the larger of the two sprockets, whilst ensuring the chain is taut. Any significant movement (e.g. making it possible to see through a gap) probably indicates a chain worn up to and beyond the limit. Sprocket damage will result if the problem is ignored. Sprocket wear cancels this effect, and may mask chain wear.

Bicycle chain wear

The lightweight chain of a bicycle with derailleur gears can snap (or rather, come apart at the side-plates, since it is normal for the "riveting" to fail first) because the pins inside are not cylindrical, they are barrel-shaped. Contact between the pin and the bushing is not the regular line, but a point which allows the chain's pins to work its way through the bushing, and finally the roller, ultimately causing the chain to snap. This form of construction is necessary because the gear-changing action of this form of transmission requires the chain to both bend sideways and to twist, but this can occur with the flexibility of such a narrow chain and relatively large free lengths on a bicycle.

Chain failure is much less of a problem on hub-geared systems since the chainline does not bend, so the parallel pins have a much bigger wearing surface in contact with the bush. The hub-gear system also allows complete enclosure, a great aid to lubrication and protection from grit.

Chain strength

The most common measure of roller chain's strength is tensile strength. Tensile strength represents how much load a chain can withstand under a one-time load before breaking. Just as important as tensile strength is a chain's fatigue strength. The critical factors in a chain's fatigue strength is the quality of steel used to manufacture the chain, the heat treatment of the chain components, the quality of the pitch hole fabrication of the linkplates, and the type of shot plus the intensity of shot peen coverage on the linkplates. Other factors can include the thickness of the linkplates and the design (contour) of the linkplates. The rule of thumb for roller chain operating on a continuous drive is for the chain load to not exceed a mere 1/6 or 1/9 of the chain's tensile strength, depending on the type of master links used (press-fit vs. slip-fit)[ citation needed ]. Roller chains operating on a continuous drive beyond these thresholds can and typically do fail prematurely via linkplate fatigue failure.

The standard minimum ultimate strength of the ANSI 29.1 steel chain is 12,500 x (pitch, in inches)2. X-ring and O-Ring chains greatly decrease wear by means of internal lubricants, increasing chain life. The internal lubrication is inserted by means of a vacuum when riveting the chain together.

Chain standards

Standards organizations (such as ANSI and ISO) maintain standards for design, dimensions, and interchangeability of transmission chains. For example, the following table shows data from ANSI standard B29.1-2011 (precision power transmission roller chains, attachments, and sprockets) [11] developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). See the references [12] [13] [14] for additional information.

ASME/ANSI B29.1-2011 Roller chain standard sizes
SizePitchMaximum roller diameterMinimum ultimate tensile strengthMeasuring load
25 0.250  in (6.35  mm )0.130 in (3.30 mm)780  lb (350  kg )18 lb (8.2 kg)
35 0.375 in (9.53 mm)0.200 in (5.08 mm)1,760 lb (800 kg)18 lb (8.2 kg)
41 0.500 in (12.70 mm)0.306 in (7.77 mm)1,500 lb (680 kg)18 lb (8.2 kg)
40 0.500 in (12.70 mm)0.312 in (7.92 mm)3,125 lb (1,417 kg)31 lb (14 kg)
50 0.625 in (15.88 mm)0.400 in (10.16 mm)4,880 lb (2,210 kg)49 lb (22 kg)
60 0.750 in (19.05 mm)0.469 in (11.91 mm)7,030 lb (3,190 kg)70 lb (32 kg)
80 1.000 in (25.40 mm)0.625 in (15.88 mm)12,500 lb (5,700 kg)125 lb (57 kg)
100 1.250 in (31.75 mm)0.750 in (19.05 mm)19,531 lb (8,859 kg)195 lb (88 kg)
120 1.500 in (38.10 mm)0.875 in (22.23 mm)28,125 lb (12,757 kg)281 lb (127 kg)
140 1.750 in (44.45 mm)1.000 in (25.40 mm)38,280 lb (17,360 kg)383 lb (174 kg)
160 2.000 in (50.80 mm)1.125 in (28.58 mm)50,000 lb (23,000 kg)500 lb (230 kg)
180 2.250 in (57.15 mm)1.460 in (37.08 mm)63,280 lb (28,700 kg)633 lb (287 kg)
200 2.500 in (63.50 mm)1.562 in (39.67 mm)78,175 lb (35,460 kg)781 lb (354 kg)
240 3.000 in (76.20 mm)1.875 in (47.63 mm)112,500 lb (51,000 kg)1,000 lb (450 kg)

For mnemonic purposes, below is another presentation of key dimensions from the same standard, expressed in fractions of an inch (which was part of the thinking behind the choice of preferred numbers in the ANSI standard):

Pitch (inches)Pitch expressed
in eighths
ANSI standard
chain number
Width (inches)
14282518
383835316
12484114
124840516
58585038
34686012
1888058
Notes:
*The pitch is the distance between roller centers. The width is the distance between the link plates (i.e. slightly more than the roller width to allow for clearance).
*The right-hand digit of the standard denotes 0 = normal chain, 1 = lightweight chain, 5 = rollerless bushing chain.
*The left-hand digit denotes the number of eighths of an inch that make up the pitch.
*An "H" following the standard number denotes heavyweight chain. A hyphenated number following the standard number denotes double-strand (2), triple-strand (3), and so on. Thus 60H-3 denotes 3/4 inch pitch heavyweight triple-strand chain.

A typical bicycle chain (for derailleur gears) uses narrow 12-inch-pitch chain. The width of the chain is variable, and does not affect the load capacity. The more sprockets at the rear wheel (historically 3–6, nowadays 7–12 sprockets), the narrower the chain. Chains are sold according to the number of speeds they are designed to work with, for example, "10 speed chain". Hub gear or single speed bicycles use 1/2 x 1/8 inch chains, where 1/8 inch refers to the maximum thickness of a sprocket that can be used with the chain.

Typically chains with parallel shaped links have an even number of links, with each narrow link followed by a broad one. Chains built up with a uniform type of link, narrow at one and broad at the other end, can be made with an odd number of links, which can be an advantage to adapt to a special chainwheel-distance; on the other side such a chain tends to be not so strong.

Roller chains made using ISO standard are sometimes called "isochains".

See also

Related Research Articles

Mechanical advantage is a measure of the force amplification achieved by using a tool, mechanical device or machine system. The device trades off input forces against movement to obtain a desired amplification in the output force. The model for this is the law of the lever. Machine components designed to manage forces and movement in this way are called mechanisms. An ideal mechanism transmits power without adding to or subtracting from it. This means the ideal machine does not include a power source, is frictionless, and is constructed from rigid bodies that do not deflect or wear. The performance of a real system relative to this ideal is expressed in terms of efficiency factors that take into account departures from the ideal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gear</span> Rotating circular machine part with teeth that mesh with another toothed part

A gear is a rotating circular machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a cogwheel or gearwheel, inserted teeth, which mesh with another (compatible) toothed part to transmit rotational power. While doing so, they can change the torque and rotational speed being transmitted and also change the rotational axis of the power being transmitted. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crankset</span> Bicycle part

The crankset or chainset is the component of a bicycle drivetrain that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into rotational motion used to drive the chain or belt, which in turn drives the rear wheel. It consists of one or more sprockets, also called chainrings or chainwheels attached to the cranks, arms, or crankarms to which the pedals attach. It is connected to the rider by the pedals, to the bicycle frame by the bottom bracket, and to the rear sprocket, cassette or freewheel via the chain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle chain</span> Roller chain that transfers power from the pedals to the drive-wheel of a bicycle

A bicycle chain is a roller chain that transfers power from the pedals to the drive-wheel of a bicycle, thus propelling it. Most bicycle chains are made from plain carbon or alloy steel, but some are nickel-plated to prevent rust, or simply for aesthetics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Continuously variable transmission</span> Automotive transmission technology

A continuously variable transmission (CVT) is an automated transmission that can change through a continuous range of gear ratios. This contrasts with other transmissions that provide a limited number of gear ratios in fixed steps. The flexibility of a CVT with suitable control may allow the engine to operate at a constant angular velocity while the vehicle moves at varying speeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freewheel</span> Mechanism which disconnects a driveshaft from a faster-rotating driven shaft

In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise unrelated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sprocket</span> Toothed wheel or cog

A sprocket, sprocket-wheel or chainwheel is a profiled wheel with teeth that mesh with a chain, rack or other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket' applies generally to any wheel upon which radial projections engage a chain passing over it. It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth except for timing pulleys used with toothed belts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-speed bicycle</span> Type of bicycle with a single gear ratio

A single-speed bicycle is a type of bicycle with a single gear ratio. These bicycles are without derailleur gears, hub gearing or other methods for varying the gear ratio of the bicycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chain drive</span> Way of transmitting mechanical power

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">O-ring chain</span>

The o-ring chain is a specialized type of roller chain used in the transmission of mechanical power from one sprocket to another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toothed belt</span>

A toothed belt, timing belt, cogged belt, cog belt, or synchronous belt is a flexible belt with teeth moulded onto its inner surface. Toothed belts are usually designed to run over matching toothed pulleys or sprockets. Toothed belts are used in a wide array of mechanical devices where high power transmission is desired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle gearing</span> Bicycle drivetrain aspect which relates cadence to wheel speed

Bicycle gearing is the aspect of a bicycle drivetrain that determines the relation between the cadence, the rate at which the rider pedals, and the rate at which the drive wheel turns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chain</span> Series of connected links which are typically made of metal

A chain is a serial assembly of connected pieces, called links, typically made of metal, with an overall character similar to that of a rope in that it is flexible and curved in compression but linear, rigid, and load-bearing in tension. A chain may consist of two or more links. Chains can be classified by their design, which can be dictated by their use:

Motorcycle components and systems for a motorcycle are engineered, manufactured, and assembled in order to produce motorcycle models with the desired performance, aesthetics, and cost. The key components of modern motorcycles are presented below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skip-link chain</span>

Skip-link chain is an obsolete roller chain for bicycles in which side plates are alternately short and long, and so rollers are alternately close together and far apart.

The saw chain, or cutting chain, is a key component of a chainsaw. It consists of steel links held together by rivets, and superficially resembles the bicycle-style roller chain, although it is closer in design to a leaf chain. Its key differences are sharp cutting teeth on the outside of the chain loop, and flat drive links on the inside, to retain the chain on the saw's bar and allow propulsion by the engine or motor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conveyor chain</span> Chain designed for chain conveyor systems

A conveyor chain is chain that has been designed specifically for chain conveyor systems. It consists of a series of journal bearings that are held together by constraining link plates. Each bearing consists of a pin and a bush on which the chain roller revolves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Master link</span>

A master link or quick-release link is a roller chain accessory that allows convenient connection and disconnection of a chain without the need for a chain tool. It acts as a set of the chain's outer plates, so joining two sets of the chain's inner plate ends. Such master links may or may not be re-usable. A chain tool is nonetheless needed to adjust a chain's length, for example to shorten a new chain before connecting its ends. They are used on bicycles and motorcycles.

Self-lubricating chains, also referred to as lube-free chains, are commonly found in both roller chain and conveyor chain varieties, with specialty self-lubricating chains also available. These chains utilize a bush made of an oil-impregnated sintered metal or plastic to provide continuous lubrication to the chain during drive, eliminating the need for further lubrication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">X-ring chain</span> Sealed roller chain

The X-ring chain is a specialized type of sealed roller chain used to transfer mechanical power. Like the standard O-ring chains it is also used in high-performance motorcycles. It uses X-ring seal to keep lubricant in place.

References

  1. 1 2 As much as 98% efficient under ideal conditions, according to Kidd, Matt D.; N. E. Loch; R. L. Reuben (1998). "Bicycle Chain Efficiency". The Engineering of Sport conference. Heriot-Watt University. Archived from the original on 6 February 2006. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
  2. In the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci made sketches of what appears to be the first steel chain. These chains were probably designed to transmit pulling, not wrapping, power because they consist only of plates and pins and have metal fittings. However, da Vinci's sketch does show a roller bearing. Tsubakimoto Chain Co., ed. (1997). The Complete Guide to Chain. Kogyo Chosaki Publishing Co., Ltd. p. 240. ISBN   0-9658932-0-0. p. 211. Retrieved 17 May 2006.
  3. "The Repertory of Patent Inventions, and Other Discoveries and Improvements in Arts, Manufactures, and Agriculture: Being a Continuation, on an Enlarged Plan, of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures ..." G. and T. Wilkie. 1800. p. 303. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  4. Reid, Carlton (2015). Roads were not built for cars : How cyclists were the first to push for good roads & became the pioneers of motoring. Washington, DC: Island Press. p. 196. ISBN   9781610916899.
  5. "Chain Lubrication Best Practices for Drives and Conveyors". www.machinerylubrication.com. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  6. Henning, Ari (30 May 2019). "Motorcycle Chains 101: The Sealed Deal | Rider Magazine". ridermagazine.com. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  7. "What is MicPol?". Lubrication. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
  8. Chains operating at high speeds comparable to those on motorcycles should be used in conjunction with an oil bath, according to: Lubrecht, A. and Dalmaz, G., (eds.) Transients Processes in Tribology, Proc 30th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology. 30th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, 2–5 September 2003, Lyon. Tribology and Interface Engineering Series (43). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 291–298.
  9. Oil drip feed provided the greatest wear protection between chain roller and pin, Oil drip feed provided the greatest power saving over unlubricated chains and sprockets, according to Lee, P.M. and Priest, M. (2004) An innovation integrated approach to testing motorcycle drive chain lubricants. In: Lubrecht, A. and Dalmaz, G., (eds.) Transients Processes in Tribology, Proc 30th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology. 30th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, 2–5 September 2003, Lyon. Tribology and Interface Engineering Series (43). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 291–298.
  10. "Riveted vs Cottered Chain - Panzit Library". panzit.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  11. ASME B29.1-2011 - Precision Power Transmission Roller Chains, Attachments, and Sprockets.
  12. Tsubakimoto Chain Co., ed. (1997). "Transmission Chains". The Complete Guide to Chain. Kogyo Chosaki Publishing Co., Ltd. p. 240. ISBN   0-9658932-0-0. p. 86. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
  13. Machinery's Handbook 1996 , pp. 2337–2361
  14. "ANSI G7 Standard Roller Chain - Tsubaki Europe". Tsubaki Europe. Tsubakimoto Europe B.V. Retrieved 18 June 2009.

Bibliography

https://www.leonardodigitale.com/en/browse/Codex-atlanticus/0987-r/