Rubroboletus satanas

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Rubroboletus satanas
Boletus satanas.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Boletaceae
Genus: Rubroboletus
Species:
R. satanas
Binomial name
Rubroboletus satanas
(Lenz) Kuan Zhao & Zhu L. Yang (2014)
Synonyms [1]
  • Boletus satanasLenz (1831)
  • Suillus satanas(Lenz) Kuntze (1898)
  • Tubiporus satanas(Lenz) Maire (1937)
  • Suillellus satanas(Lenz) Blanco-Dios (2015)
Rubroboletus satanas
Information icon.svg
Pores icon.pngPores on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svg Cap is convex
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is olive-brown
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Poison.pngEdibility is poisonous

Rubroboletus satanas, commonly known as Satan's bolete or the Devil's bolete, is a basidiomycete fungus of the bolete family (Boletaceae) and one of its most infamous members. It was known as Boletus satanas before its transfer to the new genus Rubroboletus in 2014, based on molecular phylogenetic data. Found in broad-leaved and mixed woodland in the warmer regions of Europe, it is classified as a poisonous mushroom, known to cause violent gastroenteritis. However, reports of poisoning are rare, due to the striking coloration and unpleasant odor of the fruiting bodies, which discourage experimentation.

Contents

These squat, brightly coloured fruiting bodies are often massive and imposing, with a beige-coloured velvet-textured cap up to 50 cm (20 in) across, yellow to orange-red pores and a bulbous red stem. The flesh turns blue when cut or bruised, and fruit bodies often emit an unpleasant rotten odor. It is arguably the largest bolete found in Europe.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Originally known as Boletus satanas, the Satan's bolete was described by German mycologist Harald Othmar Lenz in 1831. Lenz was aware of several reports of adverse reactions from people who had consumed this fungus and apparently felt himself ill from its "emanations" while describing it, hence giving it its sinister epithet. [2] The Greek word σατανᾶς (satanas, meaning Satan), is derived from the Hebrew śāṭān (שטן). [3] American mycologist Harry D. Thiers concluded that material from North America matches the species description, [4] however, genetic testing has since confirmed that western North American collections represent Rubroboletus eastwoodiae , a different species.

Genetic analysis published in 2013 revealed that B. satanas and several other red-pored boletes, are part of the "dupainii" clade (named after B. dupainii ), and are distantly nested from the core group of Boletus (including B. edulis and relatives) within the Boletineae. This indicated that B. satanas and its relatives belonged to a distinct genus. [5] The species was hence transferred to the new genus Rubroboletus in 2014, along with several allied red-pored, blue-staining bolete species. [6] Genetic testing on several species of the genus revealed that R. satanas is most closely related to R. pulchrotinctus , a morphologically similar but much rarer species occurring in the Mediterranean regions [7]

Common names

Both Rubroboletus satanas and Suillellus luridus are known as ayimantari ('bear mushroom') in eastern Turkey. [8]

Description

The compact cap can reach an impressive 30 cm (12 in), extraordinarily 40 cm (16 in), very rarely 50 cm (20 in) in diameter. At first it is hemispherical with an inrolled margin, but becomes convex at maturity as the fruit body expands, while in older specimens the margin might be slightly undulating. When young, the pileus is greyish white to silvery-white or buff, but older specimens tend to develop olivaceous, ochraceous or brownish tinges. The surface of the cap is finely tomentose, becoming smooth at maturity and is often slightly viscid in wet weather. The cuticle is tightly attached to the flesh and does not peel. [9] [10]

View of stipe and pore surface Boletus-satanas-4.jpg
View of stipe and pore surface

The free to slightly adnate tubes are up to 3 mm (1⁄8 in) long, pale yellow or greenish yellow and bluing when cut. The pores (tube mouths) are rounded, yellow to orange at first, but soon turning red from the point of their attachment to the stem outwards, eventually becoming entirely purplish red or carmine-red at full maturity and instantly bluing when touched or bruised. The stipe is 5–15 cm (2–6 in), extraordinarily 20 cm (8 in), very rarely 25 cm (10 in) long, distinctly bulbous (4–12 cm or 1.6–4.7 in, extraordinarily 16 cm or 6.3 in, very rarely 20 cm or 7.9 in), and often wider than its length, becoming more ventricose as the fungus expands but remaining bulbous at the base. Its colour is golden-yellow to orange at the apex, becoming increasingly pinkish-red to reddish-orange further down and deep carmine-red to purple-red towards the base. It is decorated in a fine, yellowish to reddish hexagonal net, sometimes confined to the upper half of the stipe. The flesh is thick, spongy and whitish, but may be yellow to straw-coloured in immature specimens and is sometimes reddish at the stem base. It slowly turns a faded blue colour when cut, bluing more intensely around the apex and above the tubes. The smell is weak and pleasantly musky in young fruit bodies, but becomes increasingly putrid in older specimens, reminiscent of carrion. [11] Young specimens have a reportedly pleasant, nutty taste. [12] The spore print is olivaceous green. [13]

The spores are fusiform (spindle-shaped) when viewed under a microscope and measure 10–16 × 4.5–7.5 μm. The cap cuticle is composed of interwoven septate hyphae, which are often finely incrusted. [14] [15]

Similar species

Satan's bolete can be confused with a number of other species:

Distribution and habitat

Rubroboletus satanas is widely distributed throughout the temperate zone, but is rare in most of its reported localities. In Europe, it mostly occurs in the southern regions and is rare or absent in northern countries. It fruits in the summer and early autumn in warm, broad-leaved and mixed forests, forming ectomycorrhizal associations with oak ( Quercus ) and sweet chestnut ( Castanea ), with a preference for calcareous (chalky) soils. Other frequently reported hosts are hornbeam ( Carpinus ), beech ( Fagus ) and lime and linden trees ( Tilia ). [14] [11]

In the United Kingdom, this striking bolete is found only in the south of England. [3] It is rare in Scandinavia, occurring primarily on a few islands in the Baltic Sea where conditions are favourable, with highly calcareous soil. [3] In the eastern Mediterranean region, it has been reported from the Bar'am Forest in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel, [16] as well as the island of Cyprus, where it is found in association with the narrow-endemic golden oak ( Quercus alnifolia ). [7] It has further been documented in the Black Sea and eastern Anatolia regions of Turkey, [8] [17] as well as Crimea and Ukraine, [18] with its distribution possibly extending as far south as Iran. [19]

In the past, R. satanas had been reported from the United States, [20] however, these sightings are instead of the closely related species Rubroboletus eastwoodiae .

Toxicity

Illustration by artist Albin Schmalfuss, 1897 Satansrohrling-1.jpg
Illustration by artist Albin Schmalfuß, 1897

This mushroom is moderately poisonous, especially if eaten raw. The symptoms, which are predominantly gastrointestinal in nature, include nausea, abdominal pain, and violent vomiting with bloody diarrhea that can last up to six hours. [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

The toxic enzyme bolesatine has been isolated from fruiting bodies of R. satanas and is implicated in the poisonings. [26] Bolesatine is a protein synthesis inhibitor and, when given to mice, causes massive thrombosis. [27] At lower concentrations, bolesatine is a mitogen, inducing cell division in human T lymphocytes. [28] Muscarine has also been isolated from this fungus, but the quantities are believed to be far too small to cause toxic effects in humans. [29] More recent studies have associated the poisoning caused by R. satanas with hyperprocalcitonemia, [30] and classified it as a distinct syndrome among fungal poisonings. [31]

Controversially, English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported in 1953 that R. satanas is consumed in certain parts of Italy and the former Czechoslovakia. [2] In those regions, the fungus is reportedly eaten following prolonged boiling that may neutralise the toxins, though this has never been proven scientifically. Similar reports exist from the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States, [4] but probably involve a different fungus misidentified as R. satanas. Ramsbottom speculated that there may be a regional variation in its toxicity, and conceded that the fungus may not be as poisonous as widely reported. [2] Nevertheless, R. satanas is rarely sampled casually, not least because of the foul smell, which in addition to their bright red colour and blue staining, make this fungus unappealing for human consumption. [29]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boletaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Boletaceae are a family of mushroom-forming fungi, primarily characterised by small pores on the spore-bearing hymenial surface, instead of gills as are found in most agarics. Nearly as widely distributed as the agarics, the family is renowned for hosting some prime edible species highly sought after by mushroom hunters worldwide, such as the cep or king bolete . A number of rare or threatened species are also present in the family, that have become the focus of increasing conservation concerns. As a whole, the typical members of the family are commonly known as boletes.

<i>Caloboletus calopus</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in Asia, Northern Europe and North America

Caloboletus calopus, commonly known as the bitter bolete, bitter beech bolete or scarlet-stemmed bolete, is a fungus of the bolete family, found in Asia, Northern Europe and North America. Appearing in coniferous and deciduous woodland in summer and autumn, the stout fruit bodies are attractively coloured, with a beige to olive cap up to 15 cm (6 in) across, yellow pores, and a reddish stipe up to 15 cm (6 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) wide. The pale yellow flesh stains blue when broken or bruised.

<i>Tylopilus felleus</i> Species of fungus

Tylopilus felleus, commonly known as the bitter bolete or the bitter tylopilus, is a fungus of the bolete family. Its distribution includes east Asia, Europe and eastern North America, extending south into Mexico and Central America. A mycorrhizal species, it grows in deciduous and coniferous woodland, often fruiting under beech and oak. Its fruit bodies have convex to flat caps that are some shade of brown, buff or tan and typically measure up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter. The pore surface is initially white before turning pinkish with age. Like most boletes it lacks a ring and it may be distinguished from Boletus edulis and other similar species by its unusual pink pores and the prominent dark-brown net-like pattern on its stalk.

<i>Neoboletus luridiformis</i> Species of fungus

Neoboletus luridiformis, also previously known as Boletus luridiformis and (invalidly) as Boletus erythropus, is a fungus of the bolete family, all of which produce mushrooms with tubes and pores beneath their caps. It is found in Northern Europe and North America, and is commonly known as the scarletina bolete, for its red pores, which are yellow when young. Other common names include the red foot bolete, dotted stemmed bolete, or dotted stem bolete.

<i>Rubroboletus pulcherrimus</i> Species of mushroom

Rubroboletus pulcherrimus, known as Boletus pulcherrimus until 2015, and commonly known as the red-pored bolete, is a species of mushroom in the family Boletaceae. It is a large bolete from Western North America with distinguishing features that include a netted surface on the stem, a red to brown cap and stem color, and red pores that stain blue upon injury. Until 2005 this was the only bolete that has been implicated in the death of someone consuming it; a couple developed gastrointestinal symptoms in 1994 after eating this fungus with the husband succumbing. Autopsy revealed infarction of the midgut.

<i>Suillellus luridus</i> Species of edible fungus of the bolete family, found in Asia, Europe, and eastern North America

Suillellus luridus, commonly known as the lurid bolete, is a fungus of the family Boletaceae, found in calcareous broadleaved woodlands in Europe. Fruit bodies appear in summer and autumn and may be locally abundant. It is a firm bolete with an olive-brown cap up to 20 cm (8 in) in diameter, with small orange or red pores on the underside. The stout ochre stem reaches 8–14 cm (3–6 in) high and 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) wide, and is patterned with a red network. Like several other red-pored boletes, it stains blue when bruised or cut.

<i>Caloboletus radicans</i> Species of fungus

Caloboletus radicans, also known as the rooting bolete or whitish bolete, is a large ectomycorrhizal fungus found in Europe under broad-leaved trees, fruiting during the summer and autumn months. It has a pale buff or greyish-white cap, yellow pores and a stout stipe, and stains intensely blue when handled or cut. Bitter and inedible, it can cause severe vomiting and diarrhoea if eaten. Until 2014 it was placed in genus Boletus, but has since been transferred to the new genus Caloboletus based on molecular phylogenetic data.

<i>Rubroboletus legaliae</i> Species of fungus

Rubroboletus legaliae, previously known as Boletus splendidus, B. satanoides, and B. legaliae is a basidiomycete fungus of the family Boletaceae. It is poisonous, with predominantly gastrointestinal symptoms, and is related to Rubroboletus satanas.

<i>Exsudoporus frostii</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in North America

Exsudoporus frostii, commonly known as Frost's bolete or the apple bolete, is a bolete fungus first described scientifically in 1874. A member of the family Boletaceae, the mushrooms produced by the fungus have tubes and pores instead of gills on the underside of their caps. Exsudoporus frostii is distributed in the eastern United States from Maine to Georgia, and in the southwest from Arizona extending south to Mexico and Costa Rica. A mycorrhizal species, its fruit bodies are typically found growing near hardwood trees, especially oak.

<i>Suillellus amygdalinus</i> Species of fungus

Suillellus amygdalinus is a fungus of the bolete family found in western North America. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, are characterized by their thick, red to brown caps, red pores, and the strong bluing reaction observed when the mushroom tissue is injured or cut. The cap can reach diameters of up to 12 cm (4.7 in) and the stipe 9 cm (3.5 in) long by 3 cm (1.2 in) thick at maturity. This mushroom has been found in manzanita and madrone woodlands of central California north to southern Oregon. Although the edibility of the mushroom is not known with certainty, it may be poisonous, and is not recommended for consumption. Other similar red-pored, bluing boletes from North America, including Rubroboletus eastwoodiae, Boletus luridiformis, and B. subvelutipes, can be distinguished from S. amygdalinus either by the color of the cap, the degree of reticulation on the stipe, or by location.

<i>Caloboletus rubripes</i> Species of fungus

Caloboletus rubripes, commonly known as the red-stipe bolete or the red-stemmed bitter bolete, is a mushroom in the family Boletaceae. It was known as Boletus rubripes until 2014. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are robust, with caps up to 18 cm in diameter, atop thick stipes 5–12 cm long. Mushrooms are non-toxic, but is so bitter as to be inedible. The mushroom flesh has a very strong bluing reaction when cut or damaged. and forms mycorrhizal relationships, primarily with conifers. It can be differentiated from similar boletes by its cap color and non-reticulate stipe.

<i>Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus</i> Species of fungus

Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus is a species of bolete in the family Boletaceae, native to Europe. Previously known as Boletus rhodoxanthus, it was transferred in 2014 to the newly erected genus Rubroboletus, based on DNA data.

<i>Tylopilus tabacinus</i> Species of fungus

Tylopilus tabacinus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. It is characterized by a tawny-brown cap measuring up to 17.5 cm (6.9 in) in diameter, and a reticulated stem up to 16.5 cm (6.5 in) long by 6 cm (2.4 in) thick. A characteristic microscopic feature is the distinctive crystalline substance encrusted on the hyphae in the surface of the cap. The species is known from the eastern United States from Florida north to Rhode Island, and west to Mississippi, and from eastern Mexico. It is a mycorrhizal species, and associates with oak and beech trees.

<i>Boletus rubroflammeus</i> Species of fungus

Boletus rubroflammeus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. First described from Michigan in 1971, it is found in the eastern United States and Mexico, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with hardwood trees. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) of the fungus have caps that are deep red to purplish red, and dark red pores. The stem has coarse, dark red reticulations and a narrow yellow area at the top. All parts of the mushroom quickly stain blue when injured or cut. Lookalikes include Boletus flammans, a lighter-colored species that grows with conifers. Other similar species can be distinguished by differences in distribution, morphology, staining reaction, and microscopic characteristics. Boletus rubroflammeus mushrooms are poisonous, and can cause gastrointestinal distress if consumed.

<i>Rubroboletus rubrosanguineus</i> Species of fungus

Rubroboletus rubrosanguineus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae that is found in Europe.

<i>Harrya chromapes</i> Species of fungus

Harrya chromapes, commonly known as the yellowfoot bolete or the chrome-footed bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The bolete is found in eastern North America, Costa Rica, and eastern Asia, where it grows on the ground, in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous and coniferous trees. Fruit bodies have smooth, rose-pink caps that are initially convex before flattening out. The pores on the cap undersurface are white, aging to a pale pink as the spores mature. The thick stipe has fine pink or reddish dots (scabers), and is white to pinkish but with a bright yellow base. The mushrooms are edible but are popular with insects, and so they are often infested with maggots.

<i>Boletus subluridellus</i> Species of fungus

Boletus subluridellus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Described as new to science in 1971 by American mycologists, the bolete is found in the eastern United States and Canada. It grows on the ground in coniferous and mixed forests in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous trees, especially oak. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) have orangish-red, broadly convex caps that are up to 10 cm (3.9 in) in diameter, with small, dark reddish pores on the underside. The pale yellow stipe measures 4–9 cm (1.6–3.5 in) long by 1.5–2.3 cm (0.6–0.9 in) thick. All parts of the fruit body will quickly stain blue when injured or touched.

<i>Rubroboletus</i> Genus of fungi

Rubroboletus is a genus of bolete fungi in the family Boletaceae. It was circumscribed by Chinese mycologists in 2014 with Rubroboletus sinicus as the type species. Species are characterized by having a reddish cap surface, yellow tubes on the underside of the cap, and an orange-red to blood-red pore surface. Pinkish to red spots (reticula) are present on the stipe surface, and a bluish color change occurs when the bolete flesh is injured. Rubroboletus mushrooms have an olive-brown spore print, and produce smooth spores. Eight species were included in the original circumscription ; five were added in 2015, and another in 2017.

<i>Sutorius eximius</i> Species of fungus

Sutorius eximius, commonly known as the lilac-brown bolete, is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae. This bolete produces fruit bodies that are dark purple to chocolate brown in color with a smooth cap, a finely scaly stipe, and a reddish-brown spore print. The tiny pores on the cap underside are chocolate to violet brown. It is widely distributed, having been recorded on North America, South America, and Asia, where it grows in a mycorrhizal relationship with both coniferous and deciduous trees.

<i>Imleria badia</i> Edible species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in Europe and North America

Imleria badia, commonly known as the bay bolete, is an edible, pored mushroom found in Eurasia and North America, where it grows in coniferous or mixed woods on the ground or on decaying tree stumps, sometimes in prolific numbers. Both the common and scientific names refer to the bay- or chestnut-coloured cap, which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter up to 15 cm (6 in). On the cap underside are small yellowish pores that turn dull blue-grey when bruised. The smooth, cylindrical stipe, measuring 4–9 cm long by 1–2 cm thick, is coloured like the cap, but paler. Some varieties have been described from eastern North America, differing from the main type in both macroscopic and microscopic morphology.

References

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  5. ↑ Nuhn ME, Binder M, Taylor AFS, Halling RE, Hibbett DS (2013). "Phylogenetic overview of the Boletineae". Fungal Biology. 117 (7–8): 479–511. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2013.04.008. PMID   23931115.
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  16. ↑ Avizohar-Hershenzon Z, Binyamini N (1972). "Boletaceae of Israel: I. Boletus sect. Luridi". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 59 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(72)80037-8.
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  18. ↑ Akulov, O.Yu; Pryidiuk, M.P. (2007). "] The preliminary checklist of boletoid fungi of Ukraine". Pagine di Micologia. 27 (117–144).
  19. ↑ Asef Shayan, M.R. (2010). Qarch-ha-ye Sammi-ye Iranقارچهای سمی ایران[Poisonous mushrooms of Iran] (in Persian). Iran shenasi. p. 214. ISBN   978-964-2725-29-8.
  20. ↑ Ammirati JA, Traquair JA, Horgen PA (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada; . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp.  241–42. ISBN   0-8166-1407-5.
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  24. ↑ Berger KJ, Guss DA. (2005). Mycotoxins revisited: Part I. J Emerg Med 28:53.
  25. ↑ Schenk-Jaeger KM, Rauber-Lüthy C, Bodmer M, Kupferschmidt H, Kullak-Ublick GA, Ceschi A (2012). "Mushroom poisoning: a study on circumstances of exposure and patterns of toxicity". European Journal of Internal Medicine. 23 (4): e85–e91. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2012.03.014. PMID   22560399.
  26. ↑ Kretz O, Creppy EE, Dirheimer G (1991). "Characterization of bolesatine, a toxic protein from the mushroom Boletus satanas Lenz and its effects on kidney cells". Toxicology. 66 (2): 213–24. doi:10.1016/0300-483X(91)90220-U. PMID   1707561.
  27. ↑ Ennamany R, Bingen A, Creppy EE, Kretz O, Gut JP, Dubuisson L, Balabaud C, Sage PB, Kirn A (1998). "Aspirin (R) and heparin prevent hepatic blood stasis and thrombosis induced by the toxic glycoprotein Bolesatine in mice". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 17 (11): 620–624. doi:10.1191/096032798678908017. PMID   9865419.
  28. ↑ Licastro F, Morini MC, Kretz O, Dirheimer G, Creppy EE; Stirpe F. (1993). "Mitogenic activity and immunological properties of bolesatine, a lectin isolated from the mushroom Boletus satanas Lenz". International Journal of Biochemistry. 25 (5): 789–792.
  29. 1 2 Benjamin, Denis R. (1995). Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas — a handbook for naturalists, mycologists and physicians . New York: WH Freeman and Company. p.  359. ISBN   0-7167-2600-9.
  30. ↑ Merlet A, Dauchy FA, Dupon M. (2012). Hyperprocalcitonemia due to mushroom poisoning. Clin Infect Dis. 54: 307–308.
  31. ↑ White J, Weinstein SA, De Haro L, Bédry R, Schaper A, Rumack BH, Zilker T. (2018). Mushroom poisoning: a proposed new clinical classification. Toxicon. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.007

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