Straw-bale construction

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An upscale use of straw bale insulation combined with energy-efficient passive features S-House Stohballen Passivhaus Sudseite im Winter.jpg
An upscale use of straw bale insulation combined with energy-efficient passive features
Straw bale construction project in Willits, California Straw-bale-construction-john-cross.jpg
Straw bale construction project in Willits, California
Example of SMS Straw Bale Home Wine Country Estate - SMS Straw Bale.JPG
Example of SMS Straw Bale Home
Exterior view of straw bale library in Mattawa, Washington taken in 2008 (constructed 2002 by IronStraw Group) Matawa Straw Bale Library IMG 1443.JPG
Exterior view of straw bale library in Mattawa, Washington taken in 2008 (constructed 2002 by IronStraw Group)

Straw-bale construction is a building method that uses bales of straw (usually wheat [2] straw) as structural elements, building insulation, or both. This construction method is commonly used in natural building or "brown" construction projects. Research has shown that straw-bale construction is a sustainable method for building, from the standpoint of both materials and energy needed for heating and cooling. [3]

Contents

Advantages of straw-bale construction over conventional building systems include the renewable nature of straw, cost, easy availability, naturally fire-retardant and high insulation value. [4] [5] [6] Disadvantages include susceptibility to rot, difficulty of obtaining insurance coverage, and high space requirements for the straw itself. [7] Research has been done using moisture probes placed within the straw wall in which 7 of 8 locations had moisture contents of less than 20%. This is a moisture level that does not aid in the breakdown of the straw. [8] However, proper construction of the straw-bale wall is important in keeping moisture levels down, just as in the construction of any type of building.

History

Straw houses have been built on the African plains since the Paleolithic Era. Straw bales were used in construction 400 years ago in Germany; and straw-thatched roofs have long been used in northern Europe and Asia. When European Settlers came to North America, teepees were insulated in winter with loose straw between the inner lining and outer cover. [9]

Pilgrim Holiness Church in Arthur, Nebraska Arthur Pilgrim Holiness Church from NW.JPG
Pilgrim Holiness Church in Arthur, Nebraska

Straw-bale construction was greatly facilitated by the mechanical hay baler, which was invented in the 1850s and was widespread by the 1890s. [9] It proved particularly useful in the Nebraska Sandhills. Pioneers seeking land under the 1862 Homestead Act and the 1904 Kinkaid Act found a dearth of trees over much of Nebraska. In many parts of the state, the soil was suitable for dugouts and sod houses. [10] However, in the Sandhills, the soil generally made poor construction sod; [11] in the few places where suitable sod could be found, it was more valuable for agriculture than as a building material. [12]

The first documented use of hay bales in construction in Nebraska was a schoolhouse built in 1896 or 1897. Unfenced and unprotected by stucco or plaster, it was reported in 1902 as having been eaten by cows. To combat this, builders began plastering their bale structures; if cement or lime stucco was unavailable, locally obtained "gumbo mud" was employed. [12] Between 1896 and 1945, an estimated 70 straw-bale buildings, including houses, farm buildings, churches, schools, offices, and grocery stores had been built in the Sandhills. [9] In 1990, nine surviving bale buildings were reported in Arthur and Logan Counties, [13] including the 1928 Pilgrim Holiness Church in the village of Arthur, which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. [11]

Since the 1990s straw-bale construction has been substantially revived, particularly in North America, Europe, and Australia. [14] [15] Straw was one of the first materials to be used in green buildings. [16] This revival is likely attributed to greater environmental awareness and the material's natural, non-toxic qualities, low embodied energy, and relative affordability. Straw-bale construction has encountered issues regarding building codes depending on the location of the building. [17] [18] However, in the USA, the introduction of Appendices S and R in the 2015 International Residential Code has helped to legitimize and improve understanding of straw-bale construction. In France, the approval in 2012 of professional rules for straw-building recognized it as “common technology” and qualifies for standard-insurance programs. [19]

Method

Straw bale building typically consists of stacking rows of bales (often in running-bond) on a raised footing or foundation, with a moisture barrier or capillary break between the bales and their supporting platform. [20] There are two types of straw-bales commonly used, those bound together with two strings and those with three. The three string bale is the larger in all three dimensions. [21] Bale walls can be tied together with pins of bamboo or wood (internal to the bales or on their faces), or with surface wire meshes, and then stuccoed or plastered, either with a lime-based formulation or earth/clay render. The bales may actually provide the structural support for the building [22] ("load-bearing" or "Nebraska-style" technique), as was the case in the original examples from the late 19th century. The plastered bale assembly also can be designed to provide lateral and shear support for wind and seismic loads.

This straw bale house plastered with loam earthen plaster is located in Swalmen, in the southeastern Netherlands Lehmverputztes Strohballenhaus.jpg
This straw bale house plastered with loam earthen plaster is located in Swalmen, in the southeastern Netherlands

Alternatively, bale buildings can have a structural frame of other materials, usually lumber or timber-frame, with bales simply serving as insulation and plaster substrate, ("infill" or "non-loadbearing" technique), which is most often required in northern regions and/or in wet climates. In northern regions, the potential snow-loading can exceed the strength of the bale walls. In wet climates, the imperative for applying a vapor-permeable finish precludes the use of cement-based stucco. Additionally, the inclusion of a skeletal framework of wood or metal allows the erection of a roof prior to raising the bales, which can protect the bale wall during construction, when it is the most vulnerable to water damage in all but the most dependably arid climates. A combination of framing and load-bearing techniques may also be employed, referred to as "hybrid" straw bale construction. [23]

Straw bale construction Straw bale house03.jpg
Straw bale construction

Straw bales can also be used as part of a Spar and Membrane Structure (SMS) wall system in which lightly reinforced 5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) gunite or shotcrete skins are interconnected with extended X-shaped light rebar in the head joints of the bales. [24] In this wall system the concrete skins provide structure, seismic reinforcing, and fireproofing, while the bales are used as leave-in formwork and insulation.

The University of Bath has completed a research programme which used ‘ModCell’ panels—prefabricated panels consisting of a wooden structural frame infilled with straw bales and rendered with a breathable lime-based system—to build 'BaleHaus', a straw bale construction on the university's campus. Monitoring work of the structure carried out by architectural researchers at the university has found that as well as reducing the environmental footprint, the construction offers other benefits, including healthier living through higher levels of thermal insulation and regulation of humidity levels. The group has published a number of research papers on its findings. [25]

High density pre-compressed bales (straw blocks) can bear higher loads than traditional field bales (bales created with baling machines on farms). While field bales support around 900 kilograms per metre (600 lb/ft) of wall length, high-density bales can bear at least 6,000 kg/m (4,000 lb/ft).

Bale buildings can also be constructed of non-straw bales—such as those made from recycled material such as tires, cardboard, paper, plastic, and carpeting—and even bags containing "bales" of wood chips or rice hulls. [5] [6]

Straw bales have also been used in very energy efficient high-performance buildings such as the S-House [26] in Austria which meets the Passivhaus energy standard. In South Africa, a five-star lodge made from 10,000 strawbales has housed world leaders Nelson Mandela and Tony Blair. [27] In the Swiss Alps, in the little village of Nax Mont-Noble, construction works have begun in October 2011 for the first hotel in Europe built entirely with straw bales. [28] The Harrison Vault, [29] in Joshua Tree, California, is engineered to withstand the high seismic loads in that area using only the assembly consisting of bales, lath and plaster. [30] The technique was used successfully for strawbale housing in rural China. [31] Straw bale domes along the Syrio-African rift at Kibbutz Lotan have an interior geodesic frame of steel pipes. [32] Another method to reap the benefits of straw is to incorporate straw-bale walls into a pre-existing structure. [33]

Straw bales are widely used to insulate walls, but they may also be used to insulate roofs and sub-floors. [34]

Thermal properties

Interior view of straw bale library Matama Straw Bale Library Interior IMG 1443.JPG
Interior view of straw bale library

Compressed straw bales have a wide range of documented R-value. R-value is a measurement of a materials insulating quality, higher the number the more insulating. The reported R-value ranges from 17–55 (in American units) or 3–9.6 (in SI) depending on the study, differing wall designs could be responsible for wide range in R-value. [35] [36] given that the bales are over a foot thick, the R-value per inch is lower than most other commercial insulation types including batts (3–4) and foamboard (~5). Bale walls are typically coated with a thick layer of plaster, which provides a well-distributed thermal mass, active on a short-term (diurnal) cycle. The combination of insulation and mass provide an excellent platform for passive solar building design for winter and summer.

In common with most building materials, there is a degree of uncertainty in the thermal conductivity due to the influences of temperature, moisture content and density. However, from evaluation of a range of literature and experimental data, a value of 0.064 W/m·K is regarded as a representative design value for straw bales at the densities typically used in building construction. [37]

Compressed and plastered straw bale walls are also resistant to fire. [38] [15]

The hygrothermal properties of straw bales have been measured and reviewed in several technical papers. [39] [40] [41] [34] [42] [43] [44] [45] According to research, the thermal conductivity does not differ significantly depending on the type of straw. [46] Samples with densities between 63 and 350 kg/m3 have been analysed. [41] [34] The best performing was characterised by a thermal conductivity of 0.038 W m−1 K−1. [41] Marques et al. [47] , Reif et al. [48] and Cascone et al. [34] indicate that the thermal conductivity of straw is relatively insensitive to bale density. The thermal conductivity of straw bales has been shown to differ with the direction of the straw's orientation within the bale, with straws with fibres oriented perpendicularly or randomly to the heat flow having lower thermal conductivity than those arranged in parallel. [49] [50] For different temperatures and densities, Vjelien [51] studied four variations of the same kind of straw: two variations concerned the direction of the fibres in relation to the heat flow: perpendicular and parallel, and the other two concerned the macrostructure chopped straw and defibrated straw. The thermal conductivity of the defibrated straw was lower than that of the chopped straw.

Efficiency

The use of straw bales as thermal insulation in buildings has been studied by many authors. [52] [40] [41] [34] They mainly focus on the straw’s thermal and hygrothermal properties. The findings showed that using straw in construction improves energy, environmental, and economic efficiency:

Some studies have evaluated the advantages of using straw bales for building insulation. Measurements carried out in an innovative and sustainable house built in France have shown that this material helps to minimize heating degrees and energy consumption. The simulated heating requirements in the winter are calculated to be 59 kW h/m2. In Italy, the energy-saving potential of a straw wall was assessed under various climatic conditions. [41] As compared to the Italian regulations’ reference of a Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB), the straw wall performed extremely well in terms of energy efficiency. The embodied energy of a straw wall structure is about half that of a conventional wall assembly, and the corresponding CO2 emissions are more than 40% lower. Furthermore, in the summer, straw bale walls provide significant thermal inertia. [53] [54]

Liuzzi et al. [40] compared expanded polystyrene (EPS), straw fibre, and olive fibre in a hygrothermal simulation of a flat in two different climatic zones (Bari and Bilbao), assuming a retrofit via interior panels. The simulation results show that the annual energy requirement when using straw fibre and olive fibre panels is close to the annual energy requirement for expanded polystyrene panels in both climates. During the cooling season, however, olive fibre and straw fibre insulation panels perform better, with a reduction of approximately 21% in Bilbao and 14% in Bari.

Straw has a thermal conductivity similar to that of common insulating materials. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.038–0.08 W m−1 K−1, which is comparable to other wood fibre insulation materials. To achieve the same thermal insulation efficiency as other more insulating materials such as extruded and extended polystyrene, the thickness of the straw insulation layer should be increased by 30–90%. [55]

Problems with straw-bale

Two significant problems related to straw-bale construction are moisture and mold. During the construction phase, buildings need to be protected from rain and from water leakages into the body of the walls. [56] If exposed to water, compressed straw may expand due to absorption of moisture. In turn, this can cause more cracking through which more moisture can infiltrate. Further damage to the wall can be caused by mold releasing potentially toxic spores into the wall cavities [57] and into the air. [58] In hot climates, where walls may have become internally dampened, internal temperatures may rise (due to decomposition of affected straw). Rats and mice can infiltrate straw bale homes during construction, so care must be taken to keep such animals out of the material. Other problems relate to straw dust which may cause breathing difficulties among people with allergies to straw or hay. [59] [60] [15]

Several companies have developed prefabricated straw bale walls. A passive ecological house can easily be assembled with those panels.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Straw</span> Agricultural byproduct of cereal crops

Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. It makes up about half of the yield by weight of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat. It has a number of different uses, including fuel, livestock bedding and fodder, thatching and basket making.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermal insulation</span> Minimization of heat transfer

Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermal mass</span> Use of thermal energy storage in building design

In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building that enables it to store heat and provide inertia against temperature fluctuations. It is sometimes known as the thermal flywheel effect. The thermal mass of heavy structural elements can be designed to work alongside a construction's lighter thermal resistance components to create energy efficient buildings.

<i>R</i>-value (insulation) Measure of how well an object, per unit of area, resists conductive flow of heat

In the context of construction, the R-value is a measure of how well a two-dimensional barrier, such as a layer of insulation, a window or a complete wall or ceiling, resists the conductive flow of heat. R-value is the temperature difference per unit of heat flux needed to sustain one unit of heat flux between the warmer surface and colder surface of a barrier under steady-state conditions. The measure is therefore equally relevant for lowering energy bills for heating in the winter, for cooling in the summer, and for general comfort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building material</span> Material which is used for construction purposes

Building material is material used for construction. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, wood, and even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacturing of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry, insulation, plumbing, and roofing work. They provide the make-up of habitats and structures including homes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cordwood construction</span>

Cordwood construction is a term used for a natural building method in which short logs are piled crosswise to build a wall, using mortar or cob to permanently secure them. This technique can use local materials at minimal cost.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural building</span> Sustainable construction practice

Natural building is the construction of buildings using systems and materials that emphasize sustainability. This in turn implies durability and the use of minimally processed, plentiful or renewable resources, as well as those that, while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. Natural building tends to rely on human labor, more than technology. As Michael G. Smith observes, it depends on "local ecology, geology and climate; on the character of the particular building site, and on the needs and personalities of the builders and users."

A vacuum insulated panel (VIP) is a form of thermal insulation consisting of a gas-tight enclosure surrounding a rigid core, from which the air has been evacuated. It is used in building construction, refrigeration units, and insulated shipping containers to provide better insulation performance than conventional insulation materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superinsulation</span> Method of insulating a building

Superinsulation is an approach to building design, construction, and retrofitting that dramatically reduces heat loss by using much higher insulation levels and airtightness than average. Superinsulation is one of the ancestors of the passive house approach.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building insulation</span> Material to reduce heat transfer in structures

Building insulation is material used in a building to reduce the flow of thermal energy. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation. Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building insulation material</span>

Building insulation materials are the building materials that form the thermal envelope of a building or otherwise reduce heat transfer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermal bridge</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cellulose insulation</span>

Cellulose insulation is plant fiber used in wall and roof cavities to insulate, draught proof and reduce noise. Building insulation in general is low-thermal-conductivity material used to reduce building heat loss and gain and reduce noise transmission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pipe insulation</span>

Pipe Insulation is thermal or acoustic insulation used on pipework.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hempcrete</span> Biocomposite material used for construction and insulation

Hempcrete or hemplime is biocomposite material, a mixture of hemp hurds (shives) and lime, sand, or pozzolans, which is used as a material for construction and insulation. It is marketed under names like Hempcrete, Canobiote, Canosmose, Isochanvre and IsoHemp. Hempcrete is easier to work with than traditional lime mixes and acts as an insulator and moisture regulator. It lacks the brittleness of concrete and consequently does not need expansion joints.

Alternative natural materials are natural materials like rock or adobe that are not as commonly used as materials such as wood or iron. Alternative natural materials have many practical uses in areas such as sustainable architecture and engineering. The main purpose of using such materials is to minimize the negative effects that built environments can have on the planet, while increasing the efficiency and adaptability of the structures.

Dynamic insulation is a form of insulation where cool outside air flowing through the thermal insulation in the envelope of a building will pick up heat from the insulation fibres. Buildings can be designed to exploit this to reduce the transmission heat loss (U-value) and to provide pre-warmed, draft free air to interior spaces. This is known as dynamic insulation since the U-value is no longer constant for a given wall or roof construction but varies with the speed of the air flowing through the insulation. Dynamic insulation is different from breathing walls. The positive aspects of dynamic insulation need to be weighed against the more conventional approach to building design which is to create an airtight envelope and provide appropriate ventilation using either natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation with heat recovery. The air-tight approach to building envelope design, unlike dynamic insulation, results in a building envelope that provides a consistent performance in terms of heat loss and risk of interstitial condensation that is independent of wind speed and direction. Under certain wind conditions a dynamically insulated building can have a higher heat transmission loss than an air-tight building with the same thickness of insulation. Often the air enters at about 15 °C.

Sustainable refurbishment describes working on existing buildings to improve their environmental performance using sustainable methods and materials. A refurbishment or retrofit is defined as: "any work to a building over and above maintenance to change its capacity, function or performance' in other words, any intervention to adjust, reuse, or upgrade a building to suit new conditions or requirements". Refurbishment can be done to a part of a building, an entire building, or a campus. Sustainable refurbishment takes this a step further to modify the existing building to perform better in terms of its environmental impact and its occupants' environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foam glass</span> Porous glass foam material used as a building material

Foam glass is a porous glass foam material. Its advantages as a building material include its light weight, high strength, and thermal and acoustic insulating properties. It is made by heating a mixture of crushed or granulated glass and a blowing agent such as carbon or limestone. Near the melting point of the glass, the blowing agent releases a gas, producing a foaming effect in the glass. After cooling the mixture hardens into a rigid material with gas-filled closed-cell pores comprising a large portion of its volume.

Cork thermal insulation refers to the use of cork as a material to provide thermal insulation against heat transfer. Cork is suitable as thermal insulator, as it is characterized by lightness, elasticity, impermeability, and fire resistance. In construction, cork can be applied in various construction elements like floors, walls, roofs, and lofts to reduce the need for heating or cooling and enhance energy efficiency. Studies indicate that cork's thermal insulation performance remains unaffected by moisture absorption during rainy seasons, making it suitable for diverse climates. Additionally, research on cork-based composites, such as cork-gypsum structures, suggests a substantial improvement in energy efficiency for buildings.

References

Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates text by S. Bourbia1 · H. Kazeoui · R. Belarbi available under the CC BY 4.0 license.

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