Tara spinosa

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Tara spinosa
Caesalpinia spinosa.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Genus: Tara
Species:
T. spinosa
Binomial name
Tara spinosa
(Feuillée ex Molina) Britton & Rose
Synonyms
  • Caesalpinia pectinataCav.
  • Caesalpinia spinosa(Feuillée ex Molina) Kuntze
  • Caesalpinia taraRuiz & Pav.
  • Caesalpinia tinctoriaDombey ex DC.
  • Caesalpinia tinctoria(Kunth) Benth. ex Reiche
  • Coulteria tinctoriaKunth
  • Poinciana spinosaFeuillée ex Molina
  • Tara tinctoriaMolina

Tara spinosa, commonly known as tara (Quechua), [1] also known as Peruvian carob [2] or spiny holdback, [2] is a small leguminous tree or thorny shrub native to Peru. [3] T. spinosa is cultivated as a source of tannins based on a galloylated quinic acid structure. [4] This chemical structure has been confirmed also by LC–MS. [5] It is also grown as an ornamental plant because of its large colorful flowers and pods.

Contents

Names and taxonomy

Its common names include spiny holdback, tara, taya, and algarroba tanino (Peru).

Tara spinosa is placed in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae, and tribe Caesalpinieae. [6]

Description

Tara spinosa typically grows 2–5 m (6.6–16.4 ft) tall; its bark is dark gray with scattered prickles and hairy twigs. Leaves are alternate, evergreen, lacking stipules, bipinnate, and lacking petiolar and rachis glands. Leaves consist of three to ten pairs of primary leaflets under 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, and five to seven pairs of subsessile elliptic secondary leaflets, each about 1.5–4 cm (0.6–2 in) long. Inflorescences are 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in) long terminal racemes, many flowered and covered in tiny hairs. Flowers are yellow to orange with 6- to 7-mm petals; the lowest sepal is boat-shaped with many long marginal teeth; stamens are yellow, irregular in length and barely protruding. The fruit is a flat, oblong indehiscent pod, about 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in) long and 2.5 cm (0.98 in) wide, containing four to seven round black seeds, which redden when mature. [7]

Distribution and habitat

Tara spinosa is native to Peru and can be found growing throughout northern, western, and southern South America, from Venezuela to Argentina. It has been introduced in drier parts of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa and has become naturalized in California. T. spinosa grows in the nearly rainless lomas or fog oases of the Peruvian coastal desert. [8]

Generally resistant to most pathogens and pests, it grows at elevations between 0 and 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, and tolerates dry climates and poor soils, including those high in sand and rocks. To propagate, seeds must be scarified (treated to break physical dormancy), and young plants should be transplanted to the field at 40 cm (16 in) in height; trees begin to produce after 4–5 years. Mature pods are usually harvested by hand and typically sun dried before processing. If well irrigated, trees can continue to produce for another 80 years, though their highest production is between 15 and 65 years of age. [9]

Uses

Industrial

Tara spinosa pods are an excellent source of tannins (tara tannins) most commonly used in the manufacture of automotive and furniture leathers. [10] This growing industry is developing around their production in Peru. Some producers have their own plantations to guarantee constant quality.

Tara tannin derivatives are being proposed as antifouling against marine organisms that can grow on ship hulls. [11] Those tannins are of the hydrolysable type. Gallic acid is the main constituent of tara tannins (53%) and can be easily isolated by alkaline hydrolysis of the plant extract. [12]

Quinic acid is also a constituent of the tara tannins. [13] Its tannins are colourless or light making them suitable a premordant in the dyeing of cotton and other cellulose fibres. [14]

The tree can also be a source of lumber and firewood, and as a live fence.

The seeds can be used to produce black dye, while dark blue dye can be obtained from the roots.

Food additives

Tara flour banned by FDA

On May 15, 2024, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the use of tara flour, having determined tara flour in human food does not meet the Generally Recognized As Safe (or GRAS) standard and is an unapproved food additive. [15] [16] On July 19, 2022, the food company Daily Harvest had identified tara flour, which is derived from the seeds of Tara spinosa, [17] as the ingredient that had sickened hundreds of its customers. [18] A handful of lawsuits have been filed against the company. [19] The chemical compound hypothesized to be responsible is baikiain. [20]

Tara gum

Tara gum, produced from a different part of the tara seed, remains safe to consume. According to the FDA, tara gum has a well established safety profile and is "distinct from tara flour". [15] Tara gum is a white or beige, nearly odorless powder that is produced by separating and grinding the endosperm of T. spinosa seeds. [2] Tara gum consists of a linear main chain of (1-4)-β-D-mannopyranose units attached by (1–6) linkages with α-D-galactopyranose units. [21] The major component of the gum is a galactomannan polymer similar to the main components of guar and locust bean gums that are used widely in the food industry. The ratio of mannose to galactose in tara gum is 3:1. [22] Tara gum has been deemed safe for human consumption as a food additive. [23]

Tara gum is used as a thickening agent and stabilizer in a number of food applications. A solution of tara gum is less viscous than a guar gum solution of the same concentration, but more viscous than a solution of locust bean gum. Furthermore, tara gum shows an intermediate acid stability between locust bean gum and guar gum. It resists the depolymerisation effect of organic acids down to a pH of 3.5. This gum is also stable to high-temperature treatment, up to 145 °C in a continuous process plant. Blends of tara with modified and unmodified starches can be produced which have enhanced stabilization and emulsification properties, and these are used in the preparation of convenience foods, such as ice cream. One example is the American ice cream brand Breyers.

The European food additive number for tara gum is E417. Tara gum is listed on the Canadian List of Permitted Emulsifying, Gelling, Stabilizing or Thickening Agents (Lists of Permitted Food Additives) as item T.2B. [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food additive</span> Substances added to food

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt (salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting foods such as bacon, sweets or wines. With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly in the manufacturing process, through packaging, or during storage or transport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guar</span> Species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae

The guar or cluster bean, with the botanical name Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, is an annual legume and the source of guar gum. It is also known as gavar, gawar, or guvar bean. The genus name Cyamopsis means bean-like. The specific name is from Latin: tetragōnoloba meaning four-lobed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guar gum</span> Vegetable gum from the guar bean, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba

Guar gum, also called guaran, is a galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from guar beans that has thickening and stabilizing properties useful in food, feed, and industrial applications. The guar seeds are mechanically dehusked, hydrated, milled and screened according to application. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrageenan</span> Natural linear sulfated polysaccharide

Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. Carrageenans are widely used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. In recent years, carrageenans have emerged as a promising candidate in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications as they resemble native glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). They have been mainly used for tissue engineering, wound coverage, and drug delivery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gum arabic</span> Natural gum obtained from Acacia sensu lato tree

Gum arabic is a natural gum originally consisting of the hardened sap of two species of the Acacia tree, Senegalia senegal and Vachellia seyal. However, the term "gum arabic" does not actually indicate a particular botanical source. The gum is harvested commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia. The name "gum Arabic" was used in the Middle East at least as early as the 9th century. Gum arabic first found its way to Europe via Arabic ports, and so retained its name.

Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate is a versatile, FDA approved food additive used to improve the mix tolerance and volume of processed foods. It is one type of a commercially available lactylate. SSL is non-toxic, biodegradable, and typically manufactured using biorenewable feedstocks. Because SSL is a safe and highly effective food additive, it is used in a wide variety of products ranging from baked goods and desserts to pet foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carob</span> Small tree grown for its edible pods and landscaping

The carob is a flowering evergreen tree or shrub in the Caesalpinioideae sub-family of the legume family, Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit, which takes the form of seed pods, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and landscapes. The carob tree is native to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. Portugal is the largest producer of carob, followed by Italy and Morocco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tannic acid</span> Chemical compound

Tannic acid is a specific form of tannin, a type of polyphenol. Its weak acidity (pKa around 6) is due to the numerous phenol groups in the structure. The chemical formula for commercial tannic acid is often given as C76H52O46, which corresponds with decagalloyl glucose, but in fact it is a mixture of polygalloyl glucoses or polygalloyl quinic acid esters with the number of galloyl moieties per molecule ranging from 2 up to 12 depending on the plant source used to extract the tannic acid. Commercial tannic acid is usually extracted from any of the following plant parts: Tara pods (Caesalpinia spinosa), gallnuts from Rhus semialata or Quercus infectoria or Sicilian sumac leaves (Rhus coriaria).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breyers</span> Ice cream brand

Breyers is a brand of ice cream started in 1866 by William A. Breyer in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galactomannan</span> Class of plant and fungal polysaccharides consisting of mannose and galactose monomers

Galactomannans are polysaccharides consisting of a mannose backbone with galactose side groups, more specifically, a (1-4)-linked beta-D-mannopyranose backbone with branchpoints from their 6-positions linked to alpha-D-galactose,.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thickening agent</span> Increases the viscosity of a liquid without altering its other properties

A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used to thicken sauces, soups, and puddings without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in paints, inks, explosives, and cosmetics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cassia gum</span>

Cassia gum is the flour and food additives made from the endosperms of the seeds of Senna obtusifolia and Senna tora. It is composed of at least 75% polysaccharide, primarily galactomannan with a mannose:galactose ratio of 5:1, resulting in a high molecular mass of 200,000-300,000 Da.

<i>Senna tora</i> Species of flowering plant

Senna tora is a plant species in the family Fabaceae and the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. Its name is derived from its Sinhala name tora (තෝර). It grows wild in most of the tropics and is considered a weed in many places. Its native range is in Central America. Its most common English name is sickle senna or sickle wild sensitive-plant. Other common names include sickle pod, tora, coffee pod and foetid cassia. It is often confused with Chinese senna or sickle pod, Senna obtusifolia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Locust bean gum</span> Vegetable gum from the carob bean Ceratonia siliqua

Locust bean gum is a galactomannan vegetable gum extracted from the seeds of the carob tree and used as a thickening agent in food technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dough conditioner</span>

A dough conditioner, flour treatment agent, improving agent or bread improver is any ingredient or chemical added to bread dough to strengthen its texture or otherwise improve it in some way. Dough conditioners may include enzymes, yeast nutrients, mineral salts, oxidants and reductants, bleaching agents and emulsifiers. They are food additives combined with flour to improve baking functionality. Flour treatment agents are used to increase the speed of dough rising and to improve the strength and workability of the dough.

A hydrolysable tannin or pyrogallol-type tannin is a type of tannin that, on heating with hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, yields gallic or ellagic acids.

Lactylates are organic compounds that are FDA approved for use as food additives and cosmetic ingredients, e.g. as food-grade emulsifiers. These additives are non-toxic, biodegradable, and typically manufactured using biorenewable feedstocks. Owing to their safety and versatile functionality, lactylates are used in a wide variety of food and non-food applications. In the United States, the Food Chemicals Codex specifies the labeling requirements for food ingredients including lactylates. In the European Union, lactylates must be labelled in accordance with the requirements of the applicable EU regulation. Lactylates may be labelled as calcium stearoyl lactylate (CSL), sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), or lactylic esters of fatty acids (LEFA).

Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate or E482 is a versatile, FDA approved food additive. It is one type of a commercially available lactylate. CSL is non-toxic, biodegradable, and typically manufactured using biorenewable feedstocks. Because CSL is a safe and highly effective food additive, it is used in a wide variety of products from baked goods and desserts to packaging.

The Food Chemicals Codex (FCC) is a collection of internationally recognized standards for the purity and identity of food ingredients.

References

  1. ↑ Diccionario Quechua - Español - Quechua, Academía Mayor de la Lengua Quechua, Gobierno Regional Cusco, Cusco 2005 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)
  2. 1 2 3 "Market Survey - Tara" (PDF). Biocomercio Peru. 2011-07-25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2021-07-08.
  3. ↑ All information in article taken from: A. Brack Egg (1999). Diccionario Enciclopédico de Plantas Utiles del Perú Cusco, Peru: CBC.
  4. ↑ Analytical Studies on Tara Tannins. J.M. Garro Galvez, B. Riedl and A. H. Conner, Holzforschung, 51(1997) 235-243 Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine .
  5. ↑ M. N. Clifford, S. Stoupi and N. Kuhnert. Profiling and Characterization by LC-MSn of the Galloylquinic Acids of Green Tea, Tara Tannin, and Tannic Acid. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2007, 55 (8), pp. 2797-2807. DOI: 10.1021/jf063533l. Publication Date (Web): March 24, 2007.
  6. ↑ "Tara spinosa". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 17 December 2017.
  7. ↑ E. McClintock (1996). Caesalpinia. In: J.C. Hickman (ed.) The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press.
  8. ↑ Zaro, Gregory (2007), "Diversity Specialists: Coastal Resource Management and Historical Contingency in the Osmore Desert of Southern Peru," Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 165–174
  9. ↑ P. De la Cruz Lapa (2004). An integral and rational utility of tara (Caesalpinia spinosa-Caesalpinia tinctoria) Rev. Inst. investig. Fac. minas metal cienc. geogr. [online]. jul./dic. 2004, vol.7, no.14 [citado 27 Mayo 2008], p.64-73. < "Revista del Instituto de Investigación de la Facultad de Ingeniería Geológica, Minera, Metalurgica y Geográfica - Aprovechamiento integral y racional de la tara Caesalpinia spinosa - caesalpinia tinctoria". Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2008-05-27.>.
  10. ↑ J. C. Castell Escuer TARA (Caesalpinia spinosa): the sustainable source of tannins for innovative tanning processes. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC). Barcelona, January 2012.
  11. ↑ N. Bellotti, B. Del Amo, R. Romagnoli. Caesalpinia spinosa tannin derivatives for antifouling formulations. Procedia Materials Science, Volume 1, 2012, pp. 259-265. 11th International Congress on Metallurgy & Materials SAM/CONAMET 2011.
  12. ↑ J.M. Garro Galvez, B. Riedl and A. H. Conner (1997). Analytical Studies on Tara Tannins. Holzforschung 51: 235-243.
  13. ↑ S. Giovando, A. Pizzi, H. Pasch and N. Pretorius. Structure and Oligomers Distribution of Commercial Tara (Caesalpina spinosa) Hydrolysable Tannin. PRO LIGNO Vol. 9 N° 1 2013, pp. 22-31, ISSN-L 1841-4737, ONLINE ISSN 2069-7430.
  14. ↑ Donna Brown, Diane de Souza, and Catharine Ellis: Mordanting Cotton and Cellulose—Successful Methods, Turkey Red Journal 19:1 (2014).
  15. 1 2 "FDA Update on the Post-market Assessment of Tara Flour". US Food and Drug Administration. 15 May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
  16. ↑ Alsever, Jennifer (18 May 2024). "The FDA finally rules that toxic tara flour once used by Daily Harvest is not safe to eat". Fast Company. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
  17. ↑ "For Now, Skip Eating Products That Contain Tara Flour, CR's Food Experts Say". Consumer Reports. 22 July 2022.
  18. ↑ Demetrakakes, Pan (20 July 2022). "Regulatory Compliance - Tara Flour Behind Mysterious Illness". Food Processing. Endeavor Business Media. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
  19. ↑ Cornwell, Paige (28 Nov 2022). "WA lawyer leads lawsuits in outbreak linked to Daily Harvest crumbles". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  20. ↑ Chittiboyina, Amar G.; Ali, Zulfiqar; Avula, Bharathi; Khan, Shabana I.; Mir, Tahir M.; Zhang, Jin; Aydoğan, Fadime; Zulfiqar, Fazila; Techen, Natascha; Parveen, Iffat; Pandey, Pankaj; Adams, Sebastian J.; Wang, Yan-Hong; Zhao, Jianping; Marshall, Gailen D.; Pugh, Nirmal D.; Khan, Ikhlas A. (2023). "Is Baikiain in Tara Flour a Causative Agent for the Adverse Events Associated with the Recalled Frozen French Lentil & Leek Crumbles Food Product? - A Working Hypothesis". Chemical Research in Toxicology. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00100. PMC   10283043 . PMID   37255213. S2CID   258988288.
  21. ↑ TARA GUM. Prepared at the 30th JECFA (1986), published in FNP 37 (1986) and in FNP 52 (1992). Metals and arsenic specifications revised at the 57th JECFA (2001).
  22. ↑ W. Sittikijyothin, D. Torres, M.P. Gonçalves. Modelling the rheological behaviour of galactomannan aqueous solutions. Carbohydrate Polymers, Volume 59, Issue 3, pp 339–350, 18 February 2005.
  23. ↑ J.F. Borzelleca, B.N. Ladu, F.R. Senti, and J.L. Egle, Jr. (1993). Evaluation of the Safety of Tara Gum as a Food Ingredient: A Review of the Literature. Journal of the American College of Toxicology 12: 81–89.
  24. ↑ "List of Permitted Emulsifying, Gelling, Stabilizing or Thickening Agents (Lists of Permitted Food Additives)". 2006-11-27. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
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