Bark beetle

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Bark beetles
Temporal range: Barremian–Recent
Dendroctonus ponderosae.jpg
Mountain pine beetle,
Dendroctonus ponderosae
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Infraorder: Cucujiformia
Family: Curculionidae
Subfamily: Scolytinae
Latreille, 1804
Tribes

Cortylini
Cryphalini
Crypturgini
Dryocoetini
Hylastini
Hylesinini
Hylurgini
Hypoborini
Ipini
Phloeosinini
Phloeotribini
Polygraphini
Scolytini
Scolytoplatypodini
Taphrorychini
Thamnurgini
Tomicini
Xyleborini
Xyloterini

A bark beetle is the common name for the subfamily of beetles Scolytinae. [1] Previously, this was considered a distinct family (Scolytidae), but is now understood to be a specialized clade of the "true weevil" family (Curculionidae). Although the term "bark beetle" refers to the fact that many species feed in the inner bark (phloem) layer of trees, the subfamily also has many species with other lifestyles, including some that bore into wood, feed in fruit and seeds, or tunnel into herbaceous plants. [1] Well-known species are members of the type genus Scolytus , namely the European elm bark beetle S. multistriatus and the large elm bark beetle S. scolytus, which like the American elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes , transmit Dutch elm disease fungi (Ophiostoma). The mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae, southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis , and their near relatives are major pests of conifer forests in North America. A similarly aggressive species in Europe is the spruce ips Ips typographus . A tiny bark beetle, the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei is a major pest on coffee plantations around the world.

Life cycle and morphology

Bark beetles go through four stages of life: egg, larvae, pupae, and adult, with the time to develop often relying on the species as well as the current temperature. While there is variation among species, generally adults first bore into a tree and lay their eggs in the phloem of the tree. This usually occurs in mid to late summer. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae then live in the tree, feeding on the living tissues below the bark, often leading to death of the tree if enough larvae are present. At the end of the larval stage, chambers are usually constructed for the pupae to overwinter until they are ready to emerge as an adult. [2]

Bark beetles are distinct in their morphology due to their small size and cylindrical shape. Bark beetles also have small appendages, with antennae that can be folded into the body and large mandibles to aid in the excavation of woody tissue. The legs of most bark beetles are very short and can be retracted or folded into the body. The combination of their shape and appendages greatly helps in the excavation of woody tissue. The eyes are also flattened and hypothesized to help see in low-light conditions. [1]

Description and ecology

Mountain pine beetles killed these lodgepole pine trees in Prince George, British Columbia. Dead pines.jpg
Mountain pine beetles killed these lodgepole pine trees in Prince George, British Columbia.

Bark beetles feed and breed between the bark and the wood of various tree species. While some species, such as the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), do attack living trees, many bark beetle species feed on weakened, dying, or dead spruce, fir, and hemlock. [3] [4] Most restrict their breeding area to one part of the tree: twig, branch, stem, or root collar. Some breed in trees of only one species, while others in numerous species of tree. In undisturbed forests, bark beetles serve the purpose of hastening the recycling and decomposition of dead and dying wood and renewing the forest. However, a few species are aggressive and can develop large populations that invade and kill healthy trees and are therefore known as pests. [5]

Bark beetles often attack trees that are already weakened by disease, overcrowding, conspecific beetles, or physical damage. In defense, healthier trees may produce sap, resin or latex, which often contains a number of insecticidal and fungicidal compounds that can kill, injure, or immobilize attacking insects. Sap is one of the first lines of defense of pines against bark beetles. Released sap or resins can plug bored holes of bark beetles and seal wounds. Resins also trap insect pests making some initial entry by bark beetles unsuccessful. Chemical compounds can also be induced by tree species that bind with amino acids in the gut of bark beetles, reducing their ability to process woody materials. [3] When in large quantities, the sheer number of beetles can overwhelm the tree's defenses with resulting impacts on the lumber industry, water quality, fish and wildlife, and property values. [6]

The oldest known member of the group is Cylindrobrotus from the Early Cretaceous (Barremian) aged Lebanese amber. [7] A species of the extant mostly Neotropical genus Microborus is also known from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber of Myanmar. [8]

Prey relationships

Bark beetles are preyed upon by birds such as woodpeckers, [9] other beetles such as the black-bellied clerid (Enoclerus lecontei) [10] and certain other members of family Cleridae, [11] : 8  flies such as the long-legged flies (Dolichopodidae), [12] and certain phoretic mites. [12] [13] Phoretic mites use the bark beetle to move from one location to the next, [12] [13] but some of these mite species also prey on the eggs or larvae of the bark beetles or act as parasites. [13]

Parasitoids

The braconid wasp Spathius canadensis is known to parasitize the native elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes . [11] : 33–35  [14]

Ambrosia beetles

Some bark beetles form a symbiotic relationship with certain Ophiostomatales fungi, and are named "ambrosia beetles". The ambrosia beetles (such as Xyleborus ) feed on fungal "gardens" cultivated on woody tissue within the tree. Ambrosia beetles carry the fungal spores in either their gut or special structures, called mycangia, and infect the trees as they attack them. Once a beetle chooses a tree, they release spores of this fungus along tunnels within the tree. These spores grow and eventually produce fruiting structures to be consumed by the beetles. This can allow for ambrosia beetles to indirectly feed from more tree species due to the reliance on the fungi for food and the fungi's ability to overcome some of the plant's chemical defenses. [15] While the majority of ambrosia beetles infect dead trees, several species will infect trees considered healthy or under stress. [1]

Biochemistry

The bark beetle's pheromones, including kairomones, can attract other insects. [16] The pheromones distinguished as kairomones are hormones, pheromones, or allomones of bark beetles, which in turn are used as a locator by insects that are attracted by it, such as flies, which may intend to harm the bark beetle itself. [16] These chemicals interact with pine trees [17] as the bark beetle's host, based on the behavioral, physiological, and biochemical effects of monoterpenes. [17]

Monoterpenes are a chemical fragrance that plays a significant role in tree-insect interactions, specifically within pine trees. It is an aggregation pheromone that attracts insects to the plant/ tree host, including the bark beetle. Monoterpenes has also been known to prevent fungal growth [18] and are also toxic to bark beetles at high vapor concentrations. [17] This latter process demonstrates a defense of pines using monoterpenes against the bark beetle.

Taxonomy

There are around 6,000 described species of bark beetles in 246 genera, placed into 26 distinct tribes. [19]

As pests

Bark beetles are most commonly recognized by their impact on the lumber industry. Massive outbreaks of mountain pine beetles in western North America after about 2005 have killed millions of acres of forest from New Mexico to British Columbia. [20] Bark beetles enter trees by boring holes in the bark of the tree, sometimes using the lenticels, or the pores plants use for gas exchange, to pass through the bark of the tree. [3] As the larvae consume the inner tissues of the tree, they often consume enough of the phloem to girdle the tree, cutting off the spread of water and nutrients. Ambrosia beetles are also known to aid in the spread of pathogens, such as diseases that can cause cankers, further damaging the trees they infect. [21] Like many other insects, Scolytinae emit pheromones to attract conspecifics, which are thus drawn to trees already colonized by bark beetles. This can result in heavy infestations and eventually death of the tree. [3] [22] Many are also attracted to ethanol produced as a byproduct of microbial growth in the dead woody tissues. [23] Increases in international trade, as well as the use of wood containers for storage, has aided numerous species of bark beetle in spreading across the world. [24] They are also extremely adaptable and able to quickly spread through new environments, as seen in France with eleven different species. [25] Bark beetle infestations are also predicted to increase with global warming, meaning infestations will most likely increase in frequency as temperatures rise. [26] [27] Besides the fact that these rising temperatures provide the optimal conditions for larval growth, the development time that the larvae need to become an adult also drops, from 8–9 weeks to 6–7 weeks. As a third the result of global warming, the breeding season of the bark beetle is extended, meaning that number of generations per year will increase. [28] All these factors contribute to an increasing amount of bark beetles and will thus likely result in an increasing frequency of infestations. In the past, fire has been suggested as potential mechanism for controlling bark beetle populations; however, most studies of wildfire after beetle outbreaks have found no effect of beetle-caused tree mortality on wildfire size or severity. [29] [30] [31]

Bark beetles can also be transporters of different plant pathogens such as cankers. The transport of the pathogens also result in the increase of fungi, mites and nematodes within the tree. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Curculionidae</span> Family of beetles

The Curculionidae are a family of weevils, commonly called snout beetles or true weevils. They are one of the largest animal families with 6,800 genera and 83,000 species described worldwide. They are the sister group to the family Brentidae.

Ambrosia beetles are beetles of the weevil subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae, which live in nutritional symbiosis with ambrosia fungi. The beetles excavate tunnels in dead or stressed trees into which they introduce fungal gardens, their sole source of nutrition. After landing on a suitable tree, an ambrosia beetle excavates a tunnel in which it releases its fungal symbiont. The fungus penetrates the plant's xylem tissue, extracts nutrients from it, and concentrates the nutrients on and near the surface of the beetle gallery. Ambrosia fungi are typically poor wood degraders, and instead utilize less demanding nutrients. Symbiotic fungi produce and detoxify ethanol, which is an attractant for ambrosia beetles and likely prevents growth of antagonistic pathogens and selects for other beneficial symbionts. The majority of ambrosia beetles colonize xylem of recently dead trees, but some colonize stressed trees that are still alive, and a few species attack healthy trees. Species differ in their preference for different parts of trees, different stages of deterioration, and in the shape of their tunnels ("galleries"). However, the majority of ambrosia beetles are not specialized to any taxonomic group of hosts, unlike most phytophagous organisms including the closely related bark beetles. One species of ambrosia beetle, Austroplatypus incompertus exhibits eusociality, one of the few organisms outside of Hymenoptera and Isoptera to do so.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain pine beetle</span> Species of beetle

The mountain pine beetle is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia. It has a hard black exoskeleton, and measures approximately 5 millimetres, about the size of a grain of rice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Verbenone</span> Chemical compound

Verbenone is a natural organic compound classified as a terpene that is found naturally in a variety of plants. The chemical has a pleasant characteristic odor. Besides being a natural constituent of plants, it and its analogs are insect pheromones. In particular, verbenone when formulated in a long-lasting matrix has an important role in the control of bark beetles such as the mountain pine beetle and the Southern pine bark beetle.

<i>Thanasimus formicarius</i> Species of beetle

The ant beetle, also known as the European red-bellied clerid, is a medium size insect, rather soft-bodied, with strong mandibles that can tear between the hard sclerotized integument of bark beetles. Larvae and adults are common predators of bark beetles in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycangium</span>

The term mycangium is used in biology for special structures on the body of an animal that are adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi. This is seen in many xylophagous insects, which apparently derive much of their nutrition from the digestion of various fungi that are growing amidst the wood fibers. In some cases, as in ambrosia beetles, the fungi are the sole food, and the excavations in the wood are simply to make a suitable microenvironment for the fungus to grow. In other cases, wood tissue is the main food, and fungi weaken the defense response from the host plant.

<i>Tomicus piniperda</i> Species of beetle

Tomicus piniperda, the common pine shoot beetle, is a bark beetle native throughout Europe, northwestern Africa, and northern Asia. It is one of the most destructive shoot-feeding species in northern Europe.

<i>Xyleborus glabratus</i> Species of beetle

Xyleborus glabratus, the redbay ambrosia beetle, is a type of ambrosia beetle invasive in the United States. It has been documented as the primary vector of Raffaelea lauricola, the fungus that causes laurel wilt, a disease that can kill several North American tree species in the family Lauraceae, including redbay, sassafras, and avocado.

<i>Dendroctonus rufipennis</i> Species of beetle

Dendroctonus rufipennis, the spruce beetle, is a species of bark beetle native to British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, Northern Manitoba, the Yukon, Alaska, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Maine. They are known to destroy forests of spruce trees including Engelmann, White, Sitka, and Colorado blue spruce. Adults average 4 to 7 mm in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European spruce bark beetle</span> Species of beetle

The European spruce bark beetle, is a species of beetle in the weevil subfamily Scolytinae, the bark beetles, and is found from Europe to Asia Minor and some parts of Africa.

<i>Dendroctonus frontalis</i> Species of beetle

Dendroctonus frontalis, the southern pine beetle, often shortened to simply SPB, is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of the southern United States, Mexico and Central America. It has recently expanded its range to the northeastern United States, where it is considered an invasive species and has destroyed massive amounts of pine forest.

<i>Hylastes ater</i> Species of beetle

Hylastes ater is a species of beetle in the family Curculionidae, the true weevils. It is a bark beetle, a member of the subfamily Scolytinae. Its common name is the black pine bark beetle. It is native to Europe and parts of Asia, including China and Korea. It is known as an introduced species in many other regions, including Australia, New Zealand, the Americas, and South Africa. It is a pest of pines and other trees, and it is widespread in areas where pine trees are cultivated. The species "is an important threat to the biosecurity of all forested countries."

<i>Ips</i> (beetle) Genus of beetles

Ips is a genus of beetles in the family Curculionidae, the true weevils. They are bark beetles, members of the subfamily Scolytinae. Species are distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Some are known as introduced species in Australia and Africa. Many species are pests of forest trees, especially pines and spruces. They are known commonly as engraver beetles, ips engraver beetles, and pine engravers.

<i>Euwallacea fornicatus</i> Species of beetle

Euwallacea fornicatus, also known as tea shot-hole borer, or polyphagous shot-hole borer (PSHB) is a species complex consisting of multiple cryptic species of ambrosia beetles known as an invasive species in California, Israel, South Africa, and Australia. The species has also been unintentionally introduced into exotic greenhouses in several European countries.

<i>Dendroctonus micans</i> Species of beetle

Dendroctonus micans, the great spruce bark beetle, is a species of bark beetle native to the coniferous forests of Europe and Asia. The beetles burrow into the bark of spruce trees and lay eggs which develop into larvae that feed on the woody layers under the bark.

<i>Rhizophagus grandis</i> Species of beetle

Rhizophagus grandis is a species of predatory beetle in the family Monotomidae. R. grandis is a specialist predator on the larvae of the great spruce bark beetle, a pest of spruce trees (Picea), and is found in Eurasian forests where its prey is found.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest disturbance by invasive insects and diseases in the United States</span>

Species which are not native to a forest ecosystem can act as an agent of disturbance, changing forest dynamics as they invade and spread. Invasive insects and pathogens (diseases) are introduced to the United States through international trade, and spread through means of natural and human-dispersal. Invasive insects and pathogens are a serious threat to many forests in the United States and have decimated populations of several tree species, including American chestnut, American elm, eastern hemlock, whitebark pine, and the native ash species. The loss of these tree species is typically rapid with both short and long-term impacts to the forest ecosystem.

Dendroctonus adjunctus, the roundheaded pine beetle, is a species of bark beetle in the family Curculionidae found in North America. A parasite, the roundheaded pine beetle feeds on and eventually kills pine trees of several species in Guatemala, Mexico, and the Southern United States.

<i>Xyleborus dispar</i> Species of beetle

Xyleborus dispar is a species of bark beetle commonly called the Pear blight beetle, or the European shothole borer. It is an invasive species in North America, and can be a pest in orchards and forests throughout its range.

<i>Euwallacea interjectus</i> Species of beetle

Euwallacea interjectus is a species of ambrosia beetle in the species complex called Euwallacea fornicatus. It is native to Asia but has been introduced to the Western hemisphere over the last century.

References

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  2. ↑ Barkley, Yvonne. "Everything you have always wanted to know about bark beetles, but were afraid to ask" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-21.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Franceschi, Vincent R.; Krokene, Paal; Christiansen, Erik; Krekling, Trygve (2005-05-03). "Anatomical and chemical defenses of conifer bark against bark beetles and other pests". New Phytologist. 167 (2): 353–376. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01436.x . ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   15998390.
  4. ↑ Rose, A.H.; Lindquist, O.H. 1985. Insects of eastern spruces, fir and, hemlock, revised edition. Gov’t Can., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa, For. Tech. Rep. 23. 159 p. (cited in Coates et al. 1994, cited orig ed 1977)
  5. ↑ Blomquist, Gary J.; Figueroa-Teran, Rubi; Aw, Mory; Song, Minmin; Gorzalski, Andrew; Abbott, Nicole L.; Chang, Eric; Tittiger, Claus (2010-10-01). "Pheromone production in bark beetles". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 40 (10): 699–712. doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2010.07.013. ISSN   0965-1748. PMID   20727970.
  6. ↑ Fettig, Christopher; Klepzig, Kier; Billings, Ronald; Munson, A. Steven; Nebeker, T. Evan; Negrόn, Jose; Nowak, John (Jan 2007). "The effectiveness of vegetation management practices for prevention and control of bark beetle infestations in coniferous forest of the western and southern United States". Forest Ecology and Management. 238 (1): 24–53. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.10.011 – via Science Direct.
  7. ↑ Kirejtshuk, Alexander G.; Azar, Dany; Beaver, Roger A.; Mandelshtam, Mikhail Yu.; Nel, André (January 2009). "The most ancient bark beetle known: a new tribe, genus and species from Lebanese amber (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)". Systematic Entomology. 34 (1): 101–112. Bibcode:2009SysEn..34..101K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2008.00442.x. S2CID   73530299.
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  22. ↑ "Bark Beetle FAQs". Ready for Wildfire. Retrieved 2022-10-31.
  23. ↑ Lindelöw, Åke; Risberg, Birger; Sjödin, Kristina (1992). "Attraction during flight of scolytids and other bark- and wood-dwelling beetles to volatiles from fresh and stored spruce wood". Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 22 (2): 224–228. doi:10.1139/x92-029. ISSN   0045-5067.
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  26. ↑ Andreas Sommerfeld; Werner Rammer; Marco Heurich; Torben Hilmers; Jörg Müller; Rupert Seidl (2020-07-20). "Author response for "Do bark beetle outbreaks amplify or dampen future bark beetle disturbances in Central Europe?"". doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13502/v3/response1. S2CID   242935910.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ↑ "Bark Beetles and Climate Change in the United States | Climate Change Resource Center". www.fs.usda.gov. Retrieved 2022-10-31.
  28. ↑ Chinellato, F., Battisti, A., Finozzi, V., & Faccoli, M. (2014). Better today but worse tomorrow: How warm summers affect breeding performance of a Scots pine pest. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269276793_Better_today_but_worse_tomorrow_how_warm_summers_affect_breeding_performance_of_a_Scots_pine_pest
  29. ↑ Harvey, Brian J.; Donato, Daniel C.; Romme, William H.; Turner, Monica G. (2013-11-01). "Influence of recent bark beetle outbreak on fire severity and postfire tree regeneration in montane Douglas-fir forests". Ecology. 94 (11): 2475–2486. Bibcode:2013Ecol...94.2475H. doi:10.1890/13-0188.1. ISSN   1939-9170. PMID   24400499. S2CID   7023088.
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  31. ↑ Harvey, Brian J.; Donato, Daniel C.; Turner, Monica G. (2014-10-21). "Recent mountain pine beetle outbreaks, wildfire severity, and postfire tree regeneration in the US Northern Rockies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (42): 15120–15125. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11115120H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1411346111 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   4210318 . PMID   25267633.
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