Bowiea

Last updated

Contents

Climbing-onion
Bowiea volubilis02.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Asparagaceae
Subfamily: Scilloideae
Genus: Bowiea
Harv. ex Hook.f.
Species:
B. volubilis
Binomial name
Bowiea volubilis
Harv. ex Hook.f.
Synonyms [1]
  • OphiobostryxSkeels
  • SchizobasopsisJ.F.Macbr.
  • Ophiobostryx volubilis(Harv. ex Hook.f.) Skeels
  • Schizobasopsis volubilis(Harv. ex Hook.f.) J.F.Macbr.
  • Bowiea gariepensisvan Jaarsv.
  • Bowiea kilimandscharicaMildbr.

Bowiea, commonly known as climbing-onion, is a genus of bulbous, perennial, succulent plants which thrive in dry and desert regions of eastern and southern Africa, ranging from Uganda to South Africa. [2] It is native to a region stretching from Kenya to Cape Province. [1] It is the 14th most commonly sold medicinal plant in South Africa, used to treat various health conditions. Due to massive harvesting, populations of this plant have been significantly reduced. [3] Because of its high content of potent cardiac glycosides, it is highly poisonous, and deaths of humans and other animals after ingestion are attributed to cardiac arrest. [4] Due to its unique appearance, it is cultivated as a houseplant. [5]

The genus contains a single species, Bowiea volubilis, named after the nineteenth-century British plant collector at Kew, James Bowie. [6] [7] The specific epithet means twisting or winding in Latin. [8]

Geographical range

Within the species, two subspecies with distinct geographical ranges have been identified. The subspecies Bowiea subsp. volubilis is found in the area stretching from tropical East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) to Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Angola, and the southeastern part of South Africa. In South Africa, it occurs in the Eastern Cape Province, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, and Limpopo. [3]

The subspecies B. subsp. gariepensis is found in southern Namibia and in the western part of the Northern Cape Province in South Africa, primarily in the eastern portion of the rocky Gariep Desert. [3]

Description

Habit Bowiea volubilis 122173532.jpg
Habit

Habit

Perennial, herbaceous climbing plants. [3]

Bulb Bowiea volubilis 005.jpg
Bulb

Stem

The plants have many overlapping scales, which form a tight, pale green, spherical bulb that grows to 8 in (20 cm) above the soil, sending up a twining fresh-green branched stem with few linear deciduous leaves. The bulbs have a sympodial structure, and the terminal bud, forming both daughter bulbs and flower stem primordia, is located at the base of the innermost storage leaf. There are few stomata on the outer surface of the storage leaves, and their volume consists of a large-celled ground tissue, storing water. Dormant in winter, when the outer scales and many of the scale tips dry to a paper-like state, the plants burst to growth in late spring or summer, producing one or more very fast-growing stems that needs to be supported by a trellis or stake. The stems are covered with many leafless side-branches that may fall off. The small greenish-white flowers appear in spring. [3]

Leaves

Short-lived, fleshy, lanceolate-linear, channelled leaves are only formed by young, immature individuals. [3]

Flower of B. subsp. volubilis Bowiea volubilis kz04.jpg
Flower of B. subsp. volubilis
Flower of B. subsp. gariepensis Jia Li Xian Bian Cao Bowiea gariepensis - panoramio.jpg
Flower of B. subsp. gariepensis

Flowers

The annual, photosynthetic, climbing flower stem is twisted or spreading, highly branched, with needle-like branches up to 7 cm long, slightly fleshy, blue to blue-green in the subspecies gariepensis, reaching up to 1.2 m in length, and green in the subspecies volubilis, up to 10 m long (usually 3–4 m, [3] and typically up to 2 m in container-grown plants). [9] The bracts are lanceolate and pointed. [3] The pedicels are arching, [3] measuring 2–5 cm in length. [2] The inflorescence is described as a branched raceme with unisexual flowers in the lower section. [10] The flowers have an unpleasant odor and are long-lasting. [3] The perianth is radial, [10] six-lobed, white (B. subsp. gariepensis) or green to yellowish-green (B. subsp. volubilis). [3] The perianth segments are equal, free, lanceolate to oblong, with edges turned and unwound outward towards the base and slightly pointed tips, spreading to recurved, measuring 12 mm in length and 3.5 mm in width. [3] There are six almost erect stamens, [3] with narrowly triangular to filiform filaments, and oblong heads. [2] The ovary is sessile, [2] semi-inferior, [11] three-chambered, broad-conical, light green, sticky in the upper part, [3] containing about 5 ovules in each chamber. [11] The carpel is syncarpous, [11] with a short, round stigma, ending in a three-branched stigma. [3]

Fruits

Three-chambered, erect capsules, measuring 9–25 mm in size, [2] spherical and flattened with notched valves (subsp. gariepensis) or cone-shaped with pointed valves (subsp. volubilis), [3] papery, [11] splitting longitudinally, with remnants of perianth segments at the base, [11] containing black, shiny, angular, oblong [3] and flattened seeds up to 10 mm in length. [2]

Similar species

Species of the genus Drimia , classified in the section Schizobasis (formerly classified as a separate genus), which have upright (non-climbing), non-fleshy flower stems and short-lived flowers with an upper ovary, slightly fused at the base perianth segments, which fall off before fruiting. [3] These plants were previously considered related, but their similarity results from convergent evolution. [10]

Biology and ecology

Habitat and development

Bowiea subsp. volubilis occurs at low to medium altitudes, usually along mountain ranges, in densely vegetated river valleys, under clumps of bushes, and on boulders. The species has also been recorded on the edges of the Karoo and in bushy ravines (kloof). This subspecies also occurs in open forests or on steep rocky hillsides, usually in well-shaded areas. It tolerates both wet and dry conditions, mainly growing in areas with summer rainfall, with annual precipitation ranging from 200 to 800 mm. [4] It blooms in spring and summer. [3] Individual specimens live for about 10 years (at least under cultivation). [9]

B. subsp. gariepensis inhabits cooler screes in the Orange River valley. It blooms in autumn and winter. [3]

The flowers of these plants, with a scent considered unpleasant, are pollinated by flies from the families Tachinidae and Muscidae , as well as Vespidae . [10]

After fruiting, the aboveground parts of both subspecies die off, and the plants enter a period of dormancy. [12]

Phytochemical characteristics

The plant is highly poisonous. [13] All parts of Bowiea contain several active cardiac glycosides, including bufadienolide glycosides. [14] The bulbs of this plant also contain compounds such as boworuboside, bowocryptoside, hellebrigenin, and polysaccharide. [15] [16]

Genetics

The chromosome number (2n) of both subspecies is 20. The chromosomal complement consists of two pairs of large (LSt), two pairs of medium-sized (MSt), and three pairs of small (SSt) subacrocentric chromosomes, as well as three pairs of small submetacentric chromosomes (SSm). [17]

Species

Taxonomic position

The species belongs to the monotypic genus Bowiea, which in classification systems of the second decade of the 21st century (including the APG IV system) is placed in the tribe Urgineeae, subfamily Scilloideae , within the family Asparagaceae . [18] The genus is sister to the genus Drimia . [3]

Historically, the genus was classified in the family Hyacinthaceae . In the Takhtajan system from 1997, the genus Bowiea was classified, together with the genus Schizobasis (now included in the genus Drimia), in the tribe BowieaeHutch. in the family Hyacinthaceae in the order Amaryllidales . [19] In the Takhtajan system from 2009, the author classified the genus in the subfamily Urgineoideae within the family Hyacinthaceae. [20] In the Reveal system from 2007, the genus was classified in the subtribe Bowieinae within the tribe Bowieae in the family Hyacinthaceae. [21]

Species division

One species is recognized, with two subspecies [1]

Nomenclatural type

The holotype of Bowiea subsp. gariepensis, collected in 1982 on Groot Pellaberg mountain near the town of Pofadder in South Africa, is stored in the herbarium of Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden in Cape Town. [23]

Threats and preservation

The subspecies Bowiea volubilis has been listed on the Red List of South African Plants as vulnerable species. This plant is under significant pressure due to harvesting for medicinal purposes across most of its range. Between 1977 and 2007, the population decline of this subspecies in South Africa exceeded 30%. Over the past 10 years, a 40% decline has been recorded in the monitored subpopulation in one of the private nature reserves, and another known subpopulation has been completely destroyed. In 2000, South African authorities confiscated 1,300 illegally collected bulbs of this plant. [24]

Bowiea subsp. gariepensis has been listed on the Red List of South African Plants with a status of least concern. [25]

Uses

Medicinal

Traditional healers in South Africa have long used Bowiea as a herbal remedy for various ailments, particularly for skin diseases, eye irritation, [26] palpitations, [27] headaches, muscle pains, infertility, urinary tract infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. [28] When combined with other plants, it is also used as an antiparasitic for infants, for hepatitis, pelvic pain in women, and jaundice in children. [26] The plant is also used to induce abortion. [29] An enema of bulb infusion is used for impotence. [30]

A decoction of the bulbs is used by the Xhosa people as a laxative, while the Mfengu and Mpondo use ground roasted bulbs for the same purpose. Zulu people use a water extract from the fresh outer scales as a remedy for ascites, infertility, urinary tract infections, back pain, and muscle pains. Swazi people use a decoction of Bowiea and Boophane disticha bulbs for scabies. In traditional medicine in the Western Cape Province, the bulbs are applied topically for skin rashes, acne, cuts, burns, and insect bites. Bulbs are also used in KwaZulu-Natal to prepare mixtures to facilitate childbirth, treat headaches, and infertility. [28]

The cardiac glycosides present in these plants have cardiotonic, laxative, irritant, emetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. [13] The effect of glycosides present in the bulbs is 30 times stronger than those of foxglove glycosides, and those present in the flowers are 60 times stronger. [29]

Due to the presence of cardiac glycosides, the entire plant is highly poisonous. [13] Symptoms of overdose include vomiting, hypersalivation, arrhythmia, and spasms, which can lead to death within minutes or hours (depending on the dosage). Autopsies of individuals who died from poisoning by this plant showed irritation of the digestive system, congestion of the liver and other internal organs, and cardiac arrest during the diastolic phase. [29]

Ornamental

Due to its unusual appearance, Bowiea is cultivated as an ornamental plant, especially as a houseplant [5] (referred to as "extraordinary" [31] and "a true curiosity"). [32]

Magical

In Africa, this plant is regarded as having magical properties. It is believed that it makes warriors brave and invincible, protects travelers, and enables the release of love. [4] Bowiea is also believed to repel bandits and protect homes from lightning and hail. [29] A decoction of the bulbs is taken orally as a remedy for poisoning (idliso) caused by witchcraft. [30]

Cultivation

The plant is described as very easy to grow. [5]

Requirements

The soil should be porous and well-draining [33] – it's recommended to use standard cactus soil, [9] according to some authors, in weathered clay. [32] [31] The container should be wide and rather shallow. [32] [31] Plants should be repotted every two years, in spring, [9] or as needed (e.g., when there are many offsets). [31] The location should be bright, [9] sunny [33] (it won't bloom in areas without direct sunlight). [5] It requires regular but moderate watering during the growing season [33] (some sources specify that watering every 10 days is sufficient). [9] Bulbs should not be soaked as their coverings easily rot. [9] Fertilization according to different authors is recommended once or twice a season [9] or once a month. [31] The plant needs support as the flower stalks do not form tendrils. [33] In natural conditions, plants go through a dormant period once a year, during which the flower stalk dies. In indoor conditions, the plant can remain evergreen, but if it enters a dormant period (which happens in summer), [31] [32] watering should be reduced to once a week until a new shoot appears [5] (according to other sources, watering and fertilizing should be completely suspended during this time). [9] [31] [32] Some authors recommend moving the bulb into a cool place during dormancy – at a temperature of about 10°C [31] or even slightly lower. [32]

Propagation

Plants are propagated from seeds, offsets (often numerous in cultivation next to the parent bulb), [32] or by rooting cuttings of the bulb's storage leaves, which produce offsets on the cut surface. [3]

Pests

They are usually not present, [31] but mealybugs, armored scale insects, and greenflies can appear. [9]

Related Research Articles

<i>Allium ursinum</i> Species of flowering plant in the family Amaryllidaceae

Allium ursinum, known as wild garlic, ramsons, cowleekes, cows's leek, cowleek, buckrams, broad-leaved garlic, wood garlic, bear leek, Eurasian wild garlic or bear's garlic, is a bulbous perennial flowering plant in the amaryllis family Amaryllidaceae. It is native to Europe and Asia, where it grows in moist woodland. It is a wild relative of onion and garlic, all belonging to the same genus, Allium. There are two recognized subspecies: A. ursinum subsp. ursinum and A. ursinum subsp. ucrainicum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scilloideae</span> Subfamily of bulbous monocot plants

Scilloideae is a subfamily of bulbous plants within the family Asparagaceae. Scilloideae is sometimes treated as a separate family Hyacinthaceae, named after the genus Hyacinthus. Scilloideae or Hyacinthaceae include many familiar garden plants such as Hyacinthus (hyacinths), Hyacinthoides (bluebells), Muscari and Scilla and Puschkinia. Some are important as cut flowers.

<i>Nerine</i> Genus of flowering plants

Nerine is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Amaryllidoideae. They are bulbous perennials, some evergreen, associated with rocky and arid habitats. They bear spherical umbels of lily-like flowers in shades from white through pink to crimson. In the case of deciduous species, the flowers may appear on naked stems before the leaves develop. Native to South Africa, there are about 20–30 species in the genus. Though described as lilies, they are not significantly related to the true lilies (Liliaceae), but more closely resemble their relatives, Amaryllis and Lycoris. The genus was established by the Revd. William Herbert in 1820.

<i>Brunsvigia</i> Genus of flowering plants

Brunsvigia is a genus of African flowering plants in the family Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Amaryllidoideae. It contains about 20 species native to southeastern and southern Africa from Tanzania to the Cape Provinces of South Africa.

<i>Adenium obesum</i> Species of plant

Adenium obesum, more commonly known as a desert rose, is a poisonous species of flowering plant belonging to the tribe Nerieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It is native to the Sahel regions south of the Sahara, tropical and subtropical eastern and southern Africa and also the Arabian Peninsula. Other names for the flower include Sabi star, kudu, mock azalea, and impala lily. Adenium obesum is a popular houseplant and bonsai in temperate regions.

<i>Scilla <span style="font-style:normal;">sect.</span> Chionodoxa</i> Section of plants in the genus Scilla

Scilla section Chionodoxa, known as glory-of-the-snow, is a small group of bulbous perennial flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. Formerly treated as the separate genus Chionodoxa, they are now included in Scilla as a section. The section is endemic to the eastern Mediterranean, specifically Crete, Cyprus and Turkey. The blue, white or pink flowers appear early in the year making them valuable garden ornamentals. The common name of the group is based on the habit of flowering in high alpine zones when the snow melts in spring.

<i>Iris spuria</i> Species of plant

Iris spuria, or blue flag, is a species of the genus Iris, part of the subgenus Limniris and the series Spuriae. It is a rhizomatous perennial plant, from Europe, Asia and Africa. It has purple or lilac flowers, and slender, elongated leaves. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in temperate regions and hybridized for use in the garden. It has several subspecies; Iris spuria subsp. carthaliniae B.Mathew, Iris spuria subsp. demetrii B.Mathew, Iris spuria subsp. maritima (Dykes) P.Fourn. and Iris spuria subsp. musulmanica (Fomin) Takht. It used to have 3 other subspecies, which have now been re-classified as separate species; Iris spuria subsp. halophila, Iris spuria ssp. sogdiana and Iris spuria subsp. notha . It has many common names including 'blue iris', 'spurious iris' and 'bastard iris'.

<i>Scadoxus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Scadoxus is a genus of African and Arabian plants in the Amaryllis family, subfamily Amaryllidoideae. The English names blood lily or blood flower are used for some of the species. The genus has close affinities with Haemanthus. Species of Scadoxus are grown as ornamental plants for their brilliantly coloured flowers, either in containers or in the ground in frost-free climates. Although some species have been used in traditional medicine, they contain poisonous alkaloids.

<i>Agapanthus praecox</i> Species of flowering plant

Agapanthus praecox is a popular garden plant around the world, especially in Mediterranean climates. It is native to the Kwa-Zulu Natal and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. Local names include agapant, bloulelie, isicakathi and ubani. Most of the cultivated plants of the genus Agapanthus are hybrids or cultivars of this species. It is divided into three subspecies: subsp.praecox, subsp. orientalis and subsp. minimus.

<i>Cotyledon tomentosa</i> Species of succulent

Cotyledon tomentosa is a species of flowering plant in the family Crassulaceae, native to South Africa. It is a succulent evergreen shrub with large chunky ovate fuzzy green leaves. Its autonymous subspecies is known as the bear's paw because of the prominent "teeth" at the tips of its leaves. It forms large orange bell-shaped flowers in spring. In its native habitat, the Little Karoo region of South Africa, Cotyledons usually grow in rocky quartz fields where they have excellent drainage provided by very porous soil.

<i>Eucomis autumnalis</i> Species of flowering plant

Eucomis autumnalis, the autumn pineapple flower, or autumn pineapple lily, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae, native to Malawi, Zimbabwe and southern Africa. It is a mid to late summer flowering deciduous bulbous perennial. The flower stem reaches about 40 cm (16 in), rising from a basal rosette of wavy-edged leaves. The green, yellow or white flowers are arranged in a spike (raceme), topped by a "head" of green leaflike bracts. It is grown as an ornamental garden plant and can also be used as a cut flower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ornamental bulbous plant</span> Herbaceous perennials with underground storage parts grown for ornamental purposes

Ornamental bulbous plants, often called ornamental bulbs or just bulbs in gardening and horticulture, are herbaceous perennials grown for ornamental purposes, which have underground or near ground storage organs. Botanists distinguish between true bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers and tuberous roots, any of which may be termed "bulbs" in horticulture. Bulb species usually lose their upper parts during adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat or winter cold. The bulb's storage organs contain moisture and nutrients that are used to survive these adverse conditions in a dormant state. When conditions become favourable the reserves sustain a new growth cycle. In addition, bulbs permit vegetative or asexual multiplication in these species. Ornamental bulbs are used in parks and gardens and as cut flowers.

<i>Drimia</i> Genus of flowering plants

Drimia is a genus of African, south European and south Asian flowering plants. In the APG IV classification system, it is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. When broadly circumscribed, the genus includes a number of other genera previously treated separately, including Litanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis and Urginea.

<i>Eucomis pallidiflora</i> Species of flowering plant

Eucomis pallidiflora, the giant pineapple lily, is a bulbous species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae, native to southern Africa. The white to green flowers appear in summer and are arranged in a spike (raceme), topped by a "head" of green leaflike bracts. Some forms reach almost 2 m when in flower. The species is cultivated as an ornamental plant, although it is not hardy in areas where severe frosts occur.

<i>Pseudoprospero</i> Genus of flowering plants

Pseudoprospero is a genus of bulbous flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. The genus has a single species Pseudoprospero firmifolium, which is endemic to South Africa.

<i>Scadoxus multiflorus</i> Species of flowering plant

Scadoxus multiflorus is a bulbous plant native to most of sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal to Somalia to South Africa. It is also native to Arabian Peninsula and to the Seychelles. It is naturalized in Mexico and in the Chagos Archipelago.It is also found in Indian peninsula. It is grown as an ornamental plant for its brilliantly coloured flowers, either in containers or in the ground in where the climate is suitable. There are three recognized subspecies. Strongly toxic like other Scadoxus species, it has been used as a component of arrow poisons and fishing poisons, as well as in traditional medicine. Common names, some of which are used for other species, include blood lily, ball lily, fireball lily, blood flower, Katherine-wheel, oxtongue lily, poison root and powderpuff lily.

Graham Dugald Duncan(born 1959) is a South African botanist and specialist bulb horticulturalist at the Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town, South Africa.

<i>Eucomis regia</i> Species of flowering plant

Eucomis regia is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae, native to the Cape Provinces of South Africa. It is sometimes cultivated, but requires protection in a greenhouse in temperate climates.

<i>Tylecodon wallichii</i> Species of succulent

Tylecodon wallichii is a species of succulent plant in the genus Tylecodon belonging to the family Crassulaceae. The species is named in honour of Nathaniel Wallich, early 19th century Danish plant hunter, botanist and physician.

<i>Tylecodon paniculatus</i> Species of succulent

Tylecodon paniculatus, also known as butter bush, butter tree, butterboom or rooisuikerblom (Afrikaans), is a species of succulent plant in the genus Tylecodon belonging to the family Crassulaceae.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Plants of the World Online". Plants of the World Online. 2019. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Van Jaarsveld, E. (2012). "Bowiea". Illustrated Handbook of Succulent Plants: Monocotyledons. Springer. pp. 276–278. ISBN   978-3-642-56715-5.
  4. 1 2 3 Parbhoo, Suvarna. "PlantZAfrica: Bowiea volubilis". South African National Biodiversity Institute. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Zachos, Ellen (2014). Growing healthy houseplants: choose the right plant, water wisely, and control pests. Storey basics. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. pp. 86–87. ISBN   978-1-61212-440-7.
  6. ↑ Govaerts, R. (1996). World Checklist of Seed Plants 2(1, 2): 1-492. Continental Publishing, Deurne.
  7. ↑ Stedje, B. (1996). Hyacinthaceae. Flora of Tropical East Africa: 1-32.
  8. ↑ Gledhill, David (2008). The names of plants (4 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-511-47376-0.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mioulane, Patrick, ed. (2009). Rośliny pokojowe: praktyczna encyklopedia (in Polish). Warsaw: Hachette Livre Polska. p. 438. ISBN   978-83-7575-544-2. OCLC   751318123.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Manning, John; Goldblatt, Peter; Snijman, D. A. (2002). The color encyclopedia of cape bulbs. Portland: Timber Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN   978-0-88192-547-0.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Speta, F. (1998). "Hyacinthaceae". In Kubitzki, Klaus (ed.). Flowering Plants · Monocotyledons. Vol. 3. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 272. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03533-7. ISBN   978-3-642-08377-8.
  12. ↑ Asakawa, Sharon. Planting designs for cactus & succulents. Indoor & outdoor projects for unique, easy-care plants-in all climates. Minneapolis: Cool Springs Press. p. 55. ISBN   978-1-59186-561-2.
  13. 1 2 3 Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC press. p. 640. ISBN   978-1-4398-9442-2. OCLC   774639599.
  14. ↑ Masondo, N.A.; Ndhlala, A.R.; Aremu, A.O.; Van Staden, J.; Finnie, J.F. (2013). "A comparison of the pharmacological properties of garden cultivated and muthi market-sold Bowiea volubilis". South African Journal of Botany. 86: 135–138. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2013.02.169.
  15. ↑ Duke, James A. (2001). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Herbal reference library series. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN   978-0-8493-3865-6.
  16. ↑ Buckingham, John. Dictionary of Natural Products, Supplement 1. Milton: CRC Press LLC. p. 38. ISBN   9781000109986.
  17. ↑ Bruyns, Peter V.; Vosa, Canio G. (1987). "Taxonomic and Cytological Notes on Bowiea Hook. F. and Allied Genera (Liliaceae)". Caryologia. 40 (4): 287–297. doi:10.1080/00087114.1987.10797831. ISSN   0008-7114.
  18. ↑ "USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. 2020. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN-Taxonomy)". npgsweb.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  19. ↑ Brands, S. J., ed. (1989). "The Taxonomicon". taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  20. ↑ Takhtaja︡n, Armen (2009). Flowering plants (2 ed.). New York: Springer. p. 668. ISBN   978-1-4020-9608-2.
  21. ↑ Reveal, James L. (2007-10-01). "Indices Nominum Supragenericorum Plantarum Vascularium". www.plantsystematics.org. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  22. ↑ "Top 10 ugly plants". The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on 2022-08-21.
  23. ↑ "Holotype of Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. subsp. gariepensis (Van Jaarsv.) Bruyns [family HYACINTHACEAE] on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  24. ↑ "Threatened Species Programme | SANBI Red List of South African Plants". redlist.sanbi.org. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  25. ↑ van Jaarsveld, E. J.; Potter, L. (2005). "National Assessment: Red List of South African Plants version 2020.1". redlist.sanbi.org. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  26. 1 2 Ramarumo, Luambo Jeffrey; Maroyi, Allfred; Tshisikhawe, M. P. (2019). "Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. subsp. volubilis: A therapeutic plant species used by the traditional healers in the Soutpansberg Region, Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 11 (7): 2538–2542.
  27. ↑ Dauncey, Elizabeth A.; Larsson, Sonny (2018). Plants That Kill: A Natural History of the World’s Most Poisonous Plants. Princeton University Press. p. 61. ISBN   0-691-17876-3.
  28. 1 2 Aremu, Adeyemi O.; Moyo, Mack; Amoo, Stephen O.; Van Staden, Johannes (2015). "Ethnobotany, therapeutic value, phytochemistry and conservation status of Bowiea volubilis: A widely used bulbous plant in southern Africa". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 174: 308–316. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2015.08.009.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Bajaj, Y. P. S (2013). Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants VII. Vol. 28. Berlin: Springer Verlag. ISBN   978-3-662-30369-6.
  30. 1 2 Dold, Tony; Cocks, Michelle (2012). Voices from the forest: celebrating nature and culture in Xhosaland. Auckland Park, South Africa: Jacana. p. 200. ISBN   978-1-4314-0299-1.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sarwa, Andrzej Juliusz (1994). Mała encyklopedia doniczkowych roślin ozdobnych (in Polish). Tarnów: Karat. ISBN   83-85601-39-2. OCLC   749516926.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Schubert, Margot; Herwig, Rob (1984). Mieszkamy wśród kwiatów (in Polish). Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. p. 146. ISBN   83-09-00563-6. OCLC   749830845.
  33. 1 2 3 4 Brickell, Christopher; American Horticultural Society, eds. (2011). American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of plants & flowers. London ; New York: DK Pub. p. 523. ISBN   978-0-7566-6857-0.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.