Interplanetary Transport Network

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This stylized depiction of the ITN is designed to show its (often convoluted) path through the Solar System. The green ribbon represents one path from among the many that are mathematically possible along the surface of the darker green bounding tube. Locations where the ribbon changes direction abruptly represent trajectory changes at Lagrange points, while constricted areas represent locations where objects linger in temporary orbit around a point before continuing on. Interplanetary Superhighway.jpg
This stylized depiction of the ITN is designed to show its (often convoluted) path through the Solar System. The green ribbon represents one path from among the many that are mathematically possible along the surface of the darker green bounding tube. Locations where the ribbon changes direction abruptly represent trajectory changes at Lagrange points, while constricted areas represent locations where objects linger in temporary orbit around a point before continuing on.

The Interplanetary Transport Network (ITN) [1] is a collection of gravitationally determined pathways through the Solar System that require very little energy for an object to follow. The ITN makes particular use of Lagrange points as locations where trajectories through space can be redirected using little or no energy. These points have the peculiar property of allowing objects to orbit around them, despite lacking an object to orbit[ further explanation needed ]. While it would use little energy, transport along the network would take a long time. [2]

Contents

History

Interplanetary transfer orbits are solutions to the gravitational three-body problem, which, for the general case, does not have analytical solutions, and is addressed by numerical analysis approximations. However, a small number of exact solutions exist, most notably the five orbits referred to as "Lagrange points", which are orbital solutions for circular orbits in the case when one body is significantly more massive.

The key to discovering the Interplanetary Transport Network was the investigation of the nature of the winding paths near the Earth-Sun and Earth-Moon Lagrange points. They were first investigated by Henri Poincaré in the 1890s. He noticed that the paths leading to and from any of those points would almost always settle, for a time, on an orbit about that point. [3] There are in fact an infinite number of paths taking one to the point and away from it, and all of which require nearly zero change in energy to reach. When plotted, they form a tube with the orbit about the Lagrange point at one end.

The derivation of these paths traces back to mathematicians Charles C. Conley and Richard P. McGehee in 1968. [4] Hiten , Japan's first lunar probe, was moved into lunar orbit using similar insight into the nature of paths between the Earth and the Moon. Beginning in 1997, Martin Lo, Shane D. Ross, and others wrote a series of papers identifying the mathematical basis that applied the technique to the Genesis solar wind sample return, and to lunar and Jovian missions. They referred to it as an Interplanetary Superhighway (IPS). [5]

Paths

As it turns out, it is very easy to transit from a path leading to the point to one leading back out. This makes sense, since the orbit is unstable, which implies one will eventually end up on one of the outbound paths after spending no energy at all. Edward Belbruno coined the term "weak stability boundary" [6] or "fuzzy boundary" [7] for this effect.

With careful calculation, one can pick which outbound path one wants. This turns out to be useful, as many of these paths lead to some interesting points in space, such as the Earth's Moon or between the Galilean moons of Jupiter, within a few months or years. [8]

For trips from Earth to other planets, they are not useful for crewed or uncrewed probes, as the trip would take many generations. Nevertheless, they have already been used to transfer spacecraft to the Earth–Sun L1 point, a useful point for studying the Sun that was employed in a number of recent missions, including the Genesis mission, the first to return solar wind samples to Earth. [9] The network is also relevant to understanding Solar System dynamics; [10] [11] Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 followed such a trajectory on its collision path with Jupiter. [12] [13]

Further explanation

The ITN is based around a series of orbital paths predicted by chaos theory and the restricted three-body problem leading to and from the orbits around the Lagrange points – points in space where the gravity between various bodies balances with the centrifugal force of an object there. For any two bodies in which one body orbits around the other, such as a star/planet or planet/moon system, there are five such points, denoted L1 through L5. For instance, the Earth–Moon L1 point lies on a line between the two, where gravitational forces between them exactly balance with the centrifugal force of an object placed in orbit there. These five points have particularly low delta-v requirements, and appear to be the lowest-energy transfers possible, even lower than the common Hohmann transfer orbit that has dominated orbital navigation since the start of space travel.

Although the forces balance at these points, the first three points (the ones on the line between a certain large mass, e.g. a star, and a smaller, orbiting mass, e.g. a planet) are not stable equilibrium points. If a spacecraft placed at the Earth–Moon L1 point is given even a slight nudge away from the equilibrium point, the spacecraft's trajectory will diverge away from the L1 point. The entire system is in motion, so the spacecraft will not actually hit the Moon, but will travel in a winding path, off into space. There is, however, a semi-stable orbit around each of these points, called a halo orbit. The orbits for two of the points, L4 and L5, are stable, but the halo orbits for L1 through L3 are stable only on the order of months.

In addition to orbits around Lagrange points, the rich dynamics that arise from the gravitational pull of more than one mass yield interesting trajectories, also known as low energy transfers. [4] For example, the gravity environment of the Sun–Earth–Moon system allows spacecraft to travel great distances on very little fuel,[ citation needed ] albeit on an often circuitous route.

Missions

Launched in 1978, the ISEE-3 spacecraft was sent on a mission to orbit around one of the Lagrange points. [14] The spacecraft was able to maneuver around the Earth's neighborhood using little fuel by taking advantage of the unique gravity environment. After the primary mission was completed, ISEE-3 went on to accomplish other goals, including a flight through the geomagnetic tail and a comet flyby. The mission was subsequently renamed the International Cometary Explorer (ICE).

The first low energy transfer using what would later be called the ITN was the rescue of Japan's Hiten lunar mission in 1991. [15]

Another example of the use of the ITN was NASA's 2001–2003 Genesis mission, which orbited the Sun–Earth L1 point for over two years collecting material, before being redirected to the L2 Lagrange point, and finally redirected from there back to Earth. [1]

The 2003–2006 SMART-1 of the European Space Agency used another low energy transfer from the ITN.[ citation needed ]

In a more recent example, the Chinese spacecraft Chang'e 2 used the ITN to travel from lunar orbit to the Earth-Sun L2 point, then on to fly by the asteroid 4179 Toutatis.[ citation needed ]

Asteroids

The asteroid 39P/Oterma's path from outside Jupiter's orbit, to inside, and back to outside is said to follow these low energy paths. [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lagrange point</span> Equilibrium points near two orbiting bodies

In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points are points of equilibrium for small-mass objects under the gravitational influence of two massive orbiting bodies. Mathematically, this involves the solution of the restricted three-body problem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans-lunar injection</span> Propulsive maneuver used to arrive at the Moon

A trans-lunar injection (TLI) is a propulsive maneuver, which is used to send a spacecraft to the Moon. Typical lunar transfer trajectories approximate Hohmann transfers, although low-energy transfers have also been used in some cases, as with the Hiten probe. For short duration missions without significant perturbations from sources outside the Earth-Moon system, a fast Hohmann transfer is typically more practical.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hohmann transfer orbit</span> Transfer manoeuvre between two orbits

In astronautics, the Hohmann transfer orbit is an orbital maneuver used to transfer a spacecraft between two orbits of different altitudes around a central body. For example, a Hohmann transfer could be used to raise a satellite's orbit from low Earth orbit to geostationary orbit. In the idealized case, the initial and target orbits are both circular and coplanar. The maneuver is accomplished by placing the craft into an elliptical transfer orbit that is tangential to both the initial and target orbits. The maneuver uses two impulsive engine burns: the first establishes the transfer orbit, and the second adjusts the orbit to match the target.

Delta-<i>v</i> budget Estimate of total change in velocity of a space mission

In astrodynamics and aerospace, a delta-v budget is an estimate of the total change in velocity (delta-v) required for a space mission. It is calculated as the sum of the delta-v required to perform each propulsive maneuver needed during the mission. As input to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, it determines how much propellant is required for a vehicle of given empty mass and propulsion system.

In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth an orbital maneuver is called a deep-space maneuver (DSM).

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spacecraft flight dynamics</span> Application of mechanical dynamics to model the flight of space vehicles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hiten (spacecraft)</span> 1990 Japanese lunar probe

The Hiten spacecraft, given the English name Celestial Maiden and known before launch as MUSES-A, part of the MUSES Program, was built by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of Japan and launched on January 24, 1990. It was Japan's first lunar probe, the first robotic lunar probe since the Soviet Union's Luna 24 in 1976, and the first lunar probe launched by a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States. The spacecraft was named after flying heavenly beings in Buddhism.

In spaceflight an orbit insertion is an orbital maneuver which adjusts a spacecraft’s trajectory, allowing entry into an orbit around a planet, moon, or other celestial body. An orbit insertion maneuver involves either deceleration from a speed in excess of the respective body’s escape velocity, or acceleration to it from a lower speed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunar orbit</span> Orbit of an object around the Moon

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-energy transfer</span> Fuel-efficient orbital maneuver

A low-energy transfer, or low-energy trajectory, is a route in space that allows spacecraft to change orbits using significantly less fuel than traditional transfers. These routes work in the Earth–Moon system and also in other systems, such as between the moons of Jupiter. The drawback of such trajectories is that they take longer to complete than higher-energy (more-fuel) transfers, such as Hohmann transfer orbits.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lissajous orbit</span> Quasi-periodic orbital trajectory

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halo orbit</span> Periodic, three-dimensional orbit

A halo orbit is a periodic, three-dimensional orbit associated with one of the L1, L2 or L3 Lagrange points in the three-body problem of orbital mechanics. Although a Lagrange point is just a point in empty space, its peculiar characteristic is that it can be orbited by a Lissajous orbit or by a halo orbit. These can be thought of as resulting from an interaction between the gravitational pull of the two planetary bodies and the Coriolis and centrifugal force on a spacecraft. Halo orbits exist in any three-body system, e.g., a Sun–Earth–orbiting satellite system or an Earth–Moon–orbiting satellite system. Continuous "families" of both northern and southern halo orbits exist at each Lagrange point. Because halo orbits tend to be unstable, station-keeping using thrusters may be required to keep a satellite on the orbit.

The European Student Moon Orbiter (ESMO) was a proposed European student mission to the Moon. Student teams from 19 universities throughout Europe worked on the program. ESMO was conceived by the Student Space Exploration & Technology Initiative (SSETI) under the support of the European Space Agency (ESA); prior to the start of Phase A the full responsibility for the management of the program was transferred to the ESA Education Office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aditya-L1</span> Indias first solar observation mission

Aditya-L1 (/aːd̪it̪jə/) is a coronagraphy spacecraft for studying the solar atmosphere, designed and developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and various other Indian Space Research Institutes. It is orbiting at about 1.5 million km from Earth in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) between the Earth and the Sun, where it will study the solar atmosphere, solar magnetic storms, and their impact on the environment around the Earth.

Ballistic capture is a low energy method for a spacecraft to achieve an orbit around a distant planet or moon with no fuel required to go into orbit. In the ideal case, the transfer is ballistic after launch. In the traditional alternative to ballistic capture, spacecraft would either use a Hohmann transfer orbit or Oberth effect, which requires the spacecraft to burn fuel in order to slow down at the target. A requirement for the spacecraft to carry fuel adds to its cost and complexity.

A distant retrograde orbit (DRO), as most commonly conceived, is a spacecraft orbit around a moon that is highly stable because of its interactions with two Lagrange points (L1 and L2) of the planet–moon system.

Weak stability boundary (WSB), including low-energy transfer, is a concept introduced by Edward Belbruno in 1987. The concept explained how a spacecraft could change orbits using very little fuel.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Ross, S. D. (2006). "The Interplanetary Transport Network" (PDF). American Scientist . 94 (3): 230–237. doi:10.1511/2006.59.994. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2013-06-27.
  2. ↑ "The Interplanetary Superhighway; Shane Ross; Virginia Tech". Archived from the original on 2019-06-15. Retrieved 2016-12-30.
  3. ↑ Marsden, J. E.; Ross, S. D. (2006). "New methods in celestial mechanics and mission design". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 43: 43–73. doi: 10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01085-2 .
  4. 1 2 Conley, C. C. (1968). "Low energy transit orbits in the restricted three-body problem". SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics. 16 (4): 732–746. Bibcode:1968SJAM...16..732C. doi:10.1137/0116060. JSTOR   2099124.
  5. ↑ Lo, Martin W. and Ross, Shane D. (2001) The Lunar L1 Gateway: Portal to the Stars and Beyond Archived 2013-01-15 at the Wayback Machine , AIAA Space 2001 Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
  6. ↑ Edward A. Belbruno; John P. Carrico (2000). "Calculation of Weak Stability Boundary Ballistic Lunar Transfer Trajectories" (PDF). AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2017-08-29.
  7. ↑ Frank, Adam (September 1994). "Gravity's Rim". Discover . Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  8. ↑ Ross, S.D., W.S. Koon, M.W. Lo and J.E. Marsden (2003) Design of a Multi-Moon Orbiter Archived 2007-01-08 at the Wayback Machine . 13th AAS/AIAA Space Flight Mechanics Meeting, Ponce, Puerto Rico, Paper No. AAS 03–143.
  9. ↑ Lo, M. W., et al. 2001. Genesis Mission Design, The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences 49:169–184.
  10. ↑ Belbruno, E., and B.G. Marsden. 1997. Resonance Hopping in Comets. The Astronomical Journal 113:1433–1444
  11. ↑ Koon, Wang Sang; Lo, Martin W.; Marsden, Jerrold E.; Ross, Shane D. (2000). "Heteroclinic connections between periodic orbits and resonance transitions in celestial mechanics" (PDF). Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science. 10 (2): 427–469. Bibcode:2000Chaos..10..427K. doi:10.1063/1.166509. PMID   12779398. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2019-09-23.
  12. ↑ Smith, D. L. 2002. Next Exit 0.5 Million Kilometers Archived 2003-03-29 at the Wayback Machine . Engineering and Science LXV(4):6–15
  13. ↑ Ross, S. D. 2003. Statistical theory of interior–exterior transition and collision probabilities for minor bodies in the solar system Archived 2007-01-08 at the Wayback Machine , Libration Point Orbits and Applications (Eds. G Gomez, M.W. Lo and J.J. Masdemont), World Scientific, pp. 637–652.
  14. ↑ Farquhar, R. W.; Muhonen, D. P.; Newman, C.; Heuberger, H. (1980). "Trajectories and Orbital Maneuvers for the First Libration-Point Satellite". Journal of Guidance and Control. 3 (6): 549–554. Bibcode:1980JGCD....3..549F. doi:10.2514/3.56034.
  15. ↑ Belbruno, E. (2004). Capture Dynamics and Chaotic Motions in Celestial Mechanics: With the Construction of Low Energy Transfers. Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691094809. Archived from the original on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2006-09-25.

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