Lifelong learning

Last updated

Lifelong learning is the "ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated" [1] pursuit of knowledge for either personal or professional reasons. It is important for an individual's competitiveness and employability, but also enhances social inclusion, active citizenship, and personal development. [2]

Contents

Development

In some contexts, the term "lifelong learning" evolved from the term "life-long learners", created by Leslie Watkins and used by Clint Taylor, professor at CSULA and Superintendent for the Temple City Unified School District, in the district's mission statement in 1993, the term recognizes that learning is not confined to childhood or the classroom but takes place throughout life and in a range of situations.[ citation needed ]

In other contexts, the term "lifelong learning" evolved organically. The first lifelong learning institute began at The New School for Social Research (now New School University) in 1962 as an experiment in "learning in retirement". Later, after similar groups formed across the United States, many chose the name "lifelong learning institute" to be inclusive of nonretired persons in the same age range. See Lifelong learning institutes, or outside the US, University of the Third Age. [3]

During the last fifty years, constant scientific and technological innovation and change has had profound effects on how learning is understood. Learning can no longer be divided into a place and time to acquire knowledge (school) and a place and time to apply the knowledge acquired (the workplace). [4] Instead, learning can be seen as something that takes place on an ongoing basis from our daily interactions with others and with the world around us. It can create and shapeshift into the form of formal learning or informal learning, or self-directed learning. Allen Tough (1979), Canadian educator and researcher, asserts that almost 70% of learning projects are self-planned. [5]

Concept

Lifelong learning has been described as a process that includes people learning in different contexts. [6] These environments do not only include schools but also homes, workplaces, and even locations where people pursue leisure activities. However, while the learning process can be applied to learners of all ages, there is a focus on adults who are returning to organized learning. [6] There are programs based on its framework that address the different needs of learners, such as United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4 and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, which caters to the needs of the disadvantaged and marginalized learners. [7]

Lifelong learning focuses on holistic education and it has two dimensions, namely, lifelong and broad options for learning. These indicate learning that integrates traditional education proposals and modern learning opportunities. [8] It also entails an emphasis on encouraging people to learn how to learn and to select content, process, and methodologies that pursues self-design and self-perfection. [8] Some authors highlight that lifelong learning is founded on a different conceptualization of knowledge and its acquisition. It is explained not only as the possession of discrete pieces of information or factual knowledge but also as a generalized scheme of making sense of new events, including the use of tactics in order to effectively deal with them. [9]

Lifelong learning is distinguished from the concept of continuing education in the sense that it has a broader scope. Unlike the latter, which is oriented towards adult education developed for the needs of schools and industries, this type of learning is concerned with the development of human potential, recognizing each individual's capacity for it. [10]

Two theories of particular relevance when considering lifelong learning are cognitivism and constructivism. Cognitivism, most notably Gestalt theory, speaks of learning as making sense of the relationship between what is old and what is new. Similarly, Constructivist theory states that "knowledge is not passively received from the world or from authoritative sources but constructed by individuals or groups making sense of their experiential worlds". [11] Constructivism lends itself well to Lifelong learning as it brings together learning from many different sources including life experiences.

Learning economy

Traditional colleges and universities are beginning to recognize the value of lifelong learning outside of the credit and degree attainment model. Some learning is accomplished in segments or interest categories and can still be valuable to the individual and community. The economic impact of educational institutions at all levels will remain significant as individuals continue formal studies and pursue interest-based subjects. Institutions produce educated citizens who buy goods and services in the community and the education facilities and personnel generate economic activity during the operations and institutional activities. Similar to health facilities, educational institutions are among the top employers in many cities and towns of the world. Whether brick-and-mortar or distance education institutions, there is a great economic impact worldwide from learning, including lifelong learning, for all age groups. The lifelong learners, including persons with academic or professional credentials, tend to find higher-paying occupations, leaving monetary, cultural, and entrepreneurial impressions on communities, according to educator Cassandra B. Whyte. [12] [13]

Contexts

Although the term is widely used in a variety of contexts, its meaning is often unclear. [14] A learning approach that can be used to define lifelong learning is heutagogy. [15]

There are several established contexts for lifelong learning beyond traditional "brick and mortar" schooling:

E-learning is available at most colleges and universities or to individuals learning independently. Online courses are offered for free by many institutions.

One new (2008 and beyond) expression of lifelong learning is the massive open online course (a MOOC), in which a teacher or team offers a syllabus and some direction for the participation of hundreds, sometimes thousands, of learners. Most MOOCs do not offer typical "credit" for courses taken, which is why they are interesting and useful examples of lifelong learning.

Role of libraries

Partners for Lifelong Learning, Public Libraries and Adult Education Partners for Lifelong Learning, Public Libraries and Adult Education.png
Partners for Lifelong Learning, Public Libraries and Adult Education

In the United States, librarians have understood lifelong learning as an essential service of libraries since the early part of the 20th century. In 1924, William S. Learned, wrote of the potential of the American public library as an agency for adult education in The American Public Library and the Diffusion of Knowledge. [16] Two decades later, in 1942, the American Library Association Adult Education Board established a new responsibility to the adult reader. [17]

The Adult Education Act of 1966 linked literacy education and adult basic education programs. [18] This occurred at the same time that the Library Services and Construction Act was being passed. [19] Twenty-five years after the U.S. Adult Education Act was passed, the U.S. Office of Education published Partners for Lifelong Learning, Public Libraries and Adult Education. [20]

The Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) was established in 1996 and incorporated responsibilities from the U.S. Office of Education's library programs, including those focused on lifelong learning. "Championing Lifelong Learning" through libraries and museums is the first goal listed in the organization's strategic plan for 2022-2026. [21]

Emerging technologies

Lifelong learning is defined as "all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective". [22] It is often considered learning that occurs after the formal education years of childhood (where learning is instructor-driven—pedagogical) and into adulthood (where the learning is individually-driven—andragogical). It is sought out naturally through life experiences as the learner seeks to gain knowledge for professional or personal reasons. These natural experiences can come about on purpose or throughout life's unpredictable course. 'Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it' (Kolb 1984: 41). The concept of lifelong learning has become of vital importance with the emergence of new technologies that change how we receive and gather information, collaborate with others, and communicate. [23]

Assistive technology

As technology rapidly changes, individuals must adapt and learn to meet everyday demands. However, throughout life, an individual's functional capacities may also change. Assistive technologies are also important considerations under the umbrella of emerging technology and lifelong learning. Access to informal and formal learning opportunities for individuals with disabilities may be dependent upon low and high tech assistive technology.

Internet

The emergence of internet technologies has great potential to support lifelong learning endeavors, allowing for informal, just-in-time, day-to-day learning. [24] [25]

Workplace learning

Professions typically recognize the importance of developing practitioners becoming lifelong learners. Nowadays, formal training is only a beginning. Knowledge accumulates at such a fast rate that one must continue to learn to be effective (Williams, 2001). Many licensed professions mandate that their members continue learning to maintain a license. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). [26] Having said this, what are the characteristics or skills that a lifelong learner must develop. Reflective learning and critical thinking can help a learner to become more self-reliant through learning how to learn, thus making them better able to direct, manage, and control their own learning process (Candy, 1990). [27] Sipe (1995) studied experimentally "open" teachers and found that they valued self-directed learning, collaboration, reflection, and challenge; risk taking in their learning was seen as an opportunity, not a threat. Dunlap and Grabinger (2003) say that for higher education students to be lifelong learners, they must develop a capacity for self-direction, metacognition awareness, and a disposition toward learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). [26]

Metacognition

While the study of metacognition originally gave educational psychologists insights into what differentiated successful students from their less successful peers, it is increasingly being used to inform teaching that aims to make students more aware of their learning processes, and show them how to regulate those processes for more effective learning throughout their lives. [28]

Educators can employ Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) [29] [30] as a means to help learners develop their metacognition. Again, learners who are better equipped to create learning strategies for themselves will have more success in achieving their cognitive goals. [28]

As lifelong learning is "lifelong, lifewide, voluntary, and self-motivated" [1] learning to learn, that is, learning how to recognize learning strategies, and monitor and evaluate learning, is a pre-condition for lifelong learning. Metacognition is an essential first step in developing lifelong learning.

Delors Report and the four pillars of learning

The Delors Report [31] proposed an integrated vision of education based on two key paradigms: lifelong learning and the four pillars of learning. The report proposed a holistic conceptual framework of learning, that of the 'four pillars of learning'. It argued that formal education tends to emphasize the acquisition of knowledge to the detriment of other types of learning essential to sustaining human development. It stressed the need to think of learning over the life course, and to address how everyone can develop relevant skills, knowledge and attitudes for work, citizenship and personal fulfillment. [32] The four pillars of learning are:

  1. Learning to know
  2. Learning to do
  3. Learning to be
  4. Learning to live together

It is important to note that the four pillars of learning were envisaged against the backdrop of the notion of 'lifelong learning', itself an adaptation of the concept of 'lifelong education' as initially conceptualized in the 1972 Faure publication Learning to Be. [33] [32]

In practice

In India and elsewhere, the "University of the Third Age" (U3A) provides an example of the almost spontaneous emergence of autonomous learning groups accessing the expertise of their own members in the pursuit of knowledge and shared experience. No prior qualifications and no subsequent certificates feature in this approach to learning for its own sake and, as participants testify, engagement in this type of learning in later life can indeed 'prolong active life'.

In Sweden the successful concept of study circles, an idea launched almost a century ago, still represents a large portion of the adult education provision. The concept has since spread, and for instance, is a common practice in Finland as well. A study circle is one of the most democratic forms of a learning environment that has been created. There are no teachers and the group decides on what content will be covered, scope will be used, as well as a delivery method.

Sometimes lifelong learning aims to provide educational opportunities outside standard educational systems—which can be cost-prohibitive, if available at all. On the other hand, formal administrative units devoted to this discipline exist in a number of universities. For example, the 'Academy of Lifelong Learning' is an administrative unit within the University-wide 'Professional and Continuing Studies' unit at the University of Delaware. [34] Another example is the Jagiellonian University Extension (Wszechnica Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego), which is one of the most comprehensive Polish centers for lifelong learning (open learning, organizational learning, community learning). [35]

In recent years, 'lifelong learning' has been adopted in the UK as an umbrella term for post-compulsory education that falls outside of the UK higher education system—further education, community education, work-based learning and similar voluntary, public sector and commercial settings.

Most colleges and universities in the United States encourage lifelong learning to non-traditional students. Professional licensure and certification courses are also offered at many universities, for instance for teachers, social services providers, and other professionals. Some colleges even enable adults to earn credit for the college-level learning gained through work, volunteer and other experiences. [36]

Bangladesh Open University (BOU) has six schools and is offering 23 formal and 19 nonformal programs. [37] The number of enrolled students in formal programs for 2016 was 433,413. [37] Most of the courses of BOU are for professional development and most of the students are professional people who are getting scope to study in flexible hours. [37] BOU is the only public institution in the country that imparts education in distance mode. [37] In place of campus based teaching, this university uses technology including electronic devices to reach people in different corners of the country. [37]

In Canada, the federal government's Lifelong Learning Plan [38] allows Canadian residents to withdraw funds from their Registered Retirement Savings Plan to help pay for lifelong learning, but the funds can only be used for formal learning programs at designated educational institutions.

Priorities for lifelong and lifewide learning have different priorities in different countries, some placing more emphasis on economic development (towards a learning economy) and some on social development (towards a learning society). For example, the policies of China, Republic of Korea, Singapore and Malaysia promote lifelong learning in a human resource development (HRD) perspective. The governments of these countries have done much to foster HRD whilst encouraging entrepreneurship. [39]

Impact on long-term economic growth

Mainstream economic analysis has highlighted increased levels of primary and secondary education as a key driver of long-term economic growth. Data show that initial levels of educational attainment explain about half the difference in growth rates between East Asia and sub- Saharan Africa between 1965 and 2010. At the individual level, the knowledge and skills workers acquire through education and training make them more productive. Provision of good quality education can improve the knowledge and skills of a whole population beyond what traditional or informal systems can achieve. For business, educated and highly skilled workers foster productivity gains and technological change, through either innovation or imitation of processes developed elsewhere. At the societal level, education expansion helps build social and institutional capital, which has a strong impact on the investment climate and growth; it also helps in building social trust, developing participatory societies, strengthening the rule of law and supporting good governance. [40]

Role in an aging society

With today's advances in communication, travel, and medicine, many areas of the world are experiencing an increase in average life expectancy, leading to higher numbers of elderly people in the population. [41] With these individuals living longer, it means that more people will suffer the ravages of the age-related diseases of cognitive decline. According to the Alzheimer's Society, it is estimated that worldwide cases of Alzheimer's diseases will jump from 47.5 million as of 2014 to 75.6 million by 2030. [42]

With this many people living longer, it's important from a socioeconomic perspective that adult healthcare and cognitive decline be addressed in order to head off a worldwide dementia crisis. The cost of caring for an elderly dementia patient is considerably higher than their healthy counterparts. With populations living longer than ever before, the implications of dementia in a growing number of older adults threatens to become an overwhelming expense. [43]

In 2007, the US Department of Health and Human Services published a study suggesting that older people who suffer from cognitive impairment require significantly more care than healthier individuals. Those with mild impairment require about 8.5 more hours of care each week, while those with severe impairment receive about 41.5 additional hours of care. [44] Estimates project over 150 million cases of dementia worldwide by the year 2050 and "and at least one new case... reported every 3.2 seconds" [45] (as cited by researcher Israel Oluwasegun Ayenigbara in the 2022 paper "Preventive Measures against the Development of Dementia in Old Age").

In a 2012 New York Times article, Arthur Toga, a professor of neurology and director of the laboratory of neuroimaging at the University of California, Los Angeles, stated that "Exercising the brain may preserve it, forestalling mental decline." [46] It has been shown that people with higher cognitive reserves (CR), attained through lifelong learning, were better able to endure the inevitable ravages of aging, and thereby avoid the cognitive decline that often accompanies age-related neurodegenerative diseases. [47]

CR is an idea in the medical field postulating that people who have more education and/or have spent more time in mentally challenging situations (sports, hobbies, careers, etc.) develop additional material connections within their brains that allow them to be better equipped to deal with the loss of some of those connections due to brain damage that occurs with age-related neurodegenerative diseases. [48] As tissue damage appears to be an inevitable function of the aging process, working to build reserves throughout one's life may help to prevent cognitive decline.

Studies showed that even when medical testing proved biological deterioration suggestive of structural changes were occurring in subjects' brains, individuals with higher CR proved capable of preserving cognitive function longer than those with lower CR. [49] Put another way, even when subjects' brains were actively being attacked by the diseases of dementia, they were able to persist in a normal mental state for a longer period than subjects who were not involved in some type of lifelong learning. [50]

Much of the population is destined to suffer from some type of age-related neurodegenerative disease, and science has been working on possible solutions ever since German psychiatrist Alios Alzheimer published his first study of a diseased brain in 1906. [51] There is currently no effective treatment for slowing the progression of dementia, and 15-20% of adults aged 65 or older are affected by cognitive decline. [49]

It has been shown that an increased CR was associated with a reduction in mild cognitive impairment [49] and may prove to be a relatively inexpensive, non-pharmacological intervention in the fight against age-related dementia that is accessible to all populations, regardless of socio-economic status. In the 2021 paper "Cognitive Reserve, Alzheimer's Neuropathology, and Risk of Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis", authors Monica Nelson, Dylan Jester, Andrew Petkus, and Ross Andel state that "in the absence of an effective treatment strategy, factors that can slow the progression to dementia are of great importance to identify, especially since delaying onset of dementia results in notable public health savings and maintaining quality of life". [49]

While much research has been done supporting the idea that lifelong learning and CR are beneficial tools in the fight against dementia, this field of study is not immune to the problems that often plague scientific inquiry. One of the problems in this space is the lack of large, randomized controlled trials. [52] Even though much of the evidence thus far seems to indicate a demonstrable effect of the studied preventive measures on brain health and the incidence of cognitive decline, more studies need to be done to validate the findings of the published research.

While much of the published work has been positive, the ideas of cognitive reserve and lifelong learning are not without detractors. In "Education and Alzheimer's Disease: A Review of Recent International Epidemiological Studies" published in 1997 in the journal Aging and Mental Health, author C.J. Gilleard, Honorary Associate Professor, Division of Psychiatry, University College London and Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences, purports to find fault with other studies linking education to cognitive decline. Several arguments are proposed, alleging fault with the methodology of the various reviewed studies. Inconsistencies in diagnostic procedures across the years and between countries, giving rise to skewed results, are also implicated in this review. An argument is made that variations in statistical analysis and their methods of correction may be responsible for some erroneous study results. It is also suggested that variations in lifestyles could be responsible for an increase in vascular dementia, as blue-collar type workers may be less inclined to work in industries that provide mentally challenging situations. [53] Gilleard also argues that variations in the initial education levels of study subjects could skew the resultant test data. The author argues that the lack of formal education in the test subjects made them less familiar with the way the tests were presented during the studies, leading them to feel intimidated by the process which resulted in them putting forth less effort during testing and thereby artificially distorting the resultant data. Ignorance of standard testing procedures, and the stress created by this unfamiliarity, can negatively impact resulting scores, thereby skewing test results simply through a lack of experience with the testing protocols.

While initial test data about the benefits of lifelong learning programs point toward benefits in reducing the risk of dementia, full compliance would seem to be an unrealistic goal, with individuals with lower levels of education likely to be less motivated to participate. [53] While studies have shown that many factors influence the likelihood of adults entering lifelong learning programs, such as gender, race, and initial educational levels, it has also been established that lifelong learning programs provide the opportunity for health benefits regardless of a person's level of formal education. These programs have been shown to increase cognitive reserves and thereby lessen the possibility of succumbing to cognitive decline-related diseases. [54]

There is also a presumption that education is something that occurs only during one's formative years, and that older adults are limited in their capacities for learning. [47] These assumptions appear to have been debunked by numerous studies, as it has been shown that cognitive gains can be made by older adults, and that various methods of lifelong learning can help restore unused skills and slow mental decline. [47]

While some normal cognitive decline is to be expected with aging, the effects of cognitive decline-related diseases like Alzheimer's begin to take hold decades before a patient is diagnosed. While there is currently no cure for dementia and only limited pharmacological interventions available, it has been proposed that gains can be made in the preservation of cognition through lifestyle modification, utilizing methods like education, mentally demanding careers, and a cognitively active lifestyle to help increase individuals' cognitive reserves. [52] [45]

Studies indicate that lifelong learning plays an important part in age-related neurodegenerative disease prevention. Some recent studies have shown a reduction in the rates of dementia in more recently born residents of Western countries, suggesting that a healthier, more active lifestyle may play a role in reduction of disease and increased public health. [52] In an attempt to spread these benefits worldwide, increasing free and low-cost access to online and in-person education could provide cognitive health benefits to vulnerable populations across the world, lessening the economic and social impacts of cognitive decline related diseases in communities across the globe. [52]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dementia</span> Long-term brain disorders causing impaired memory, thinking and behavior

Dementia is the general name for a decline in cognitive abilities that impacts a person's ability to perform everyday activities. This typically involves problems with memory, thinking, and behavior. Aside from memory impairment and a disruption in thought patterns, the most common symptoms include emotional problems, difficulties with language, and decreased motivation. The symptoms may be described as occurring in a continuum over several stages. Dementia ultimately has a significant effect on the individual, caregivers, and on social relationships in general. A diagnosis of dementia requires the observation of a change from a person's usual mental functioning and a greater cognitive decline than what is caused by normal aging.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adult education</span> Any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling

Adult education, distinct from child education, is a practice in which adults engage in systematic and sustained self-educating activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values. It can mean any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling, encompassing basic literacy to personal fulfillment as a lifelong learner, and to ensure the fulfillment of an individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Problem-based learning</span> Learner centric pedagogy

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. The PBL process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution, but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes. This includes knowledge acquisition, enhanced group collaboration and communication.

Cognitive disorders (CDs), also known as neurocognitive disorders (NCDs), are a category of mental health disorders that primarily affect cognitive abilities including learning, memory, perception, and problem-solving. Neurocognitive disorders include delirium, mild neurocognitive disorders, and major neurocognitive disorder. They are defined by deficits in cognitive ability that are acquired, typically represent decline, and may have an underlying brain pathology. The DSM-5 defines six key domains of cognitive function: executive function, learning and memory, perceptual-motor function, language, complex attention, and social cognition.

Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the patterns behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of". Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's ways of thinking and knowing when and how to use particular strategies for problem-solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition and (2) regulation of cognition. A metacognitive model differs from other scientific models in that the creator of the model is per definition also enclosed within it. Scientific models are often prone to distancing the observer from the object or field of study whereas a metacognitive model in general tries to include the observer in the model.

Ellen Bialystok, OC, FRSC is a Canadian psychologist and professor. She carries the rank of Distinguished Research Professor at York University in Toronto, Ontario where she is director of the Lifespan Cognition and Development Lab. She is also an associate scientist at the Rotman Research Institute of the Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care.

Memory disorders are the result of damage to neuroanatomical structures that hinders the storage, retention and recollection of memories. Memory disorders can be progressive, including Alzheimer's disease, or they can be immediate including disorders resulting from head injury.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memory and aging</span> Aspect of senescence

Age-related memory loss, sometimes described as "normal aging", is qualitatively different from memory loss associated with types of dementia such as Alzheimer's disease, and is believed to have a different brain mechanism.

Cognitive reserve is the mind's and brain's resistance to damage of the brain. The mind's resilience is evaluated behaviorally, whereas the neuropathological damage is evaluated histologically, although damage may be estimated using blood-based markers and imaging methods. There are two models that can be used when exploring the concept of "reserve": brain reserve and cognitive reserve. These terms, albeit often used interchangeably in the literature, provide a useful way of discussing the models. Using a computer analogy, brain reserve can be seen as hardware and cognitive reserve as software. All these factors are currently believed to contribute to global reserve. Cognitive reserve is commonly used to refer to both brain and cognitive reserves in the literature.

Brain training is a program of regular activities purported to maintain or improve one's cognitive abilities. The phrase “cognitive ability” usually refers to components of fluid intelligence such as executive function and working memory. Cognitive training reflects a hypothesis that cognitive abilities can be maintained or improved by exercising the brain, analogous to the way physical fitness is improved by exercising the body. Cognitive training activities can take place in numerous modalities such as cardiovascular fitness training, playing online games or completing cognitive tasks in alignment with a training regimen, playing video games that require visuospatial reasoning, and engaging in novel activities such as dance, art, and music.

Cognitive impairment is an inclusive term to describe any characteristic that acts as a barrier to the cognition process or different areas of cognition. Cognition, also known as cognitive function, refers to the mental processes of how a person gains knowledge, uses existing knowledge, and understands things that are happening around them using their thoughts and senses. A cognitive impairment can be in different domains or aspects of a person's cognitive function including memory, attention span, planning, reasoning, decision-making, language, executive functioning, and visuospatial functioning. The term cognitive impairment covers many different diseases and conditions and may also be symptom or manifestation of a different underlying condition. Examples include impairments in overall intelligence ,specific and restricted impairments in cognitive abilities, neuropsychological impairments, or it may describe drug-induced impairment in cognition and memory. Cognitive impairments may be short-term, progressive or permanent.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a neurocognitive disorder which involves cognitive impairments beyond those expected based on an individual's age and education but which are not significant enough to interfere with instrumental activities of daily living. MCI may occur as a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia, especially Alzheimer's disease. It includes both memory and non-memory impairments. The cause of the disorder remains unclear, as well as both its prevention and treatment, with some 50 percent of people diagnosed with it going on to develop Alzheimer's disease within five years. The diagnosis can also serve as an early indicator for other types of dementia, although MCI may remain stable or even remit.

The prevention of dementia involves reducing the number of risk factors for the development of dementia, and is a global health priority needing a global response. Initiatives include the establishment of the International Research Network on Dementia Prevention (IRNDP) which aims to link researchers in this field globally, and the establishment of the Global Dementia Observatory a web-based data knowledge and exchange platform, which will collate and disseminate key dementia data from members states. Although there is no cure for dementia, it is well established that modifiable risk factors influence both the likelihood of developing dementia and the age at which it is developed. Dementia can be prevented by reducing the risk factors for vascular disease such as diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, smoking, physical inactivity and depression. A study concluded that more than a third of dementia cases are theoretically preventable. Among older adults both an unfavorable lifestyle and high genetic risk are independently associated with higher dementia risk. A favorable lifestyle is associated with a lower dementia risk, regardless of genetic risk. In 2020, a study identified 12 modifiable lifestyle factors, and the early treatment of acquired hearing loss was estimated as the most significant of these factors, potentially preventing up to 9% of dementia cases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open education</span> Educational movement

Open education is an educational movement founded on openness, with connections to other educational movements such as critical pedagogy, and with an educational stance which favours widening participation and inclusiveness in society. Open education broadens access to the learning and training traditionally offered through formal education systems and is typically offered through online and distance education. The qualifier "open" refers to the elimination of barriers that can preclude both opportunities and recognition for participation in institution-based learning. One aspect of openness or "opening up" education is the development and adoption of open educational resources in support of open educational practices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonformal learning</span> Category of learning situation

Non-formal learning includes various structured learning situations which do not either have the level of curriculum, syllabus, accreditation and certification associated with 'formal learning', but have more structure than that associated with 'informal learning', which typically take place naturally and spontaneously as part of other activities. These form the three styles of learning recognised and supported by the OECD.

There are a variety of disabilities affecting cognitive ability. This is a broad concept encompassing various intellectual or cognitive deficits, including intellectual disability, deficits too mild to properly qualify as intellectual disability, various specific conditions, and problems acquired later in life through acquired brain injuries or neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.

Global citizenship education (GCED) is a form of civic learning that involves students' active participation in projects that address global issues of a social, political, economic, or environmental nature. The two main elements of GCE are 'global consciousness'; the moral or ethical aspect of global issues, and 'global competencies', or skills meant to enable learners to participate in changing and developing the world. The promotion of GCE was a response by governments and NGOs to the emergence of supranational institution, regional economic blocs, and the development of information and communications technologies. These have all resulted in the emergence of a more globally oriented and collaborative approach to education. GCE addresses themes such as peace and human rights, intercultural understanding, citizenship education, respect for diversity and tolerance, and inclusiveness.

The Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay diet, or more commonly, the MIND diet, combines portions of the DASH diet and the Mediterranean diet. Both the DASH diet and the Mediterranean diet have been shown to improve cognition; however, neither was developed to slow neurodegeneration. Therefore, a team at Rush University Medical Center, headed by Martha Clare Morris, worked to create the MIND diet. Like the DASH and Mediterranean diets, the MIND diet emphasizes the intake of fresh fruit, vegetables, and legumes. The MIND diet also includes recommendations for specific foods, like leafy greens and berries, that have been scientifically shown to slow cognitive decline. Recent research has shown that the MIND diet may be more effective at reducing cognitive decline than either the Mediterranean or the DASH diet alone, though a cause and effect relationship has yet to be determined. Additional testing has shown that the level of adherence to the MIND diet also impacts the diet's neuro-protective effects.

Geriatric psychology is a subfield of psychology that specializes in the mental and physical health of individuals in the later stages of life. These specialized psychologists study a variety of psychological abilities that deplete as aging occurs such as memory, learning capabilities, and coordination. Geriatric psychologists work with elderly clients to conduct the diagnosis, study, and treatment of certain mental illnesses in a variety of workplace settings. Common areas of practice include loneliness in old age, depression, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and Parkinson's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) in African Americans is becoming a rising topic of interest in AD care, support, and scientific research, as African Americans are disproportionately affected by AD. Recent research on AD has shown that there are clear disparities in the disease among racial groups, with higher prevalence and incidence in African Americans than the overall average. Pathologies for Alzheimer’s also seem to manifest differently in African Americans, including with neuroinflammation markers, cognitive decline, and biomarkers. Although there are genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s, these account for few cases in all racial groups.

References

  1. 1 2 Department of Education and Science (2000). Learning for Life: Paper on Adult Education. Dublin: Stationery Office.
  2. ↑ Commission of the European Communities: Adult learning: It is never too late to learn. COM(2006) 614 final. Brussels, 23.10.2006
  3. ↑ Formosa, Marvin (May 1, 2019). "Universities of the Third Age". Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging. Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_412-1. ISBN   978-3-319-69892-2.
  4. ↑ Fischer, Gerhard (2000). "Lifelong Learning - More than Training" in Journal of Interactive Learning Research, Volume 11 issue 3/4 pp 265–294.
  5. ↑ The Adult's Learning Projects, A Fresh Approach to Theory and Practice in Adult Learning p.1
  6. 1 2 O'Grady, Anne (2013). Lifelong Learning in the UK: An introductory guide for Education Studies. Oxon: Routledge. ISBN   978-1-136-34095-6.
  7. ↑ Jarvis, Peter (2009). The Routledge International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. Oxon: Routledge. p. 310. ISBN   978-1-135-20253-8.
  8. 1 2 Qinhua, Zheng; Dongming, Ma; Zhiying, Nian; Hao, Xie (2016). Adult Competencies for Lifelong Learning. Aalborg: River Publishers. p. 19. ISBN   978-87-93379-23-7.
  9. ↑ Sharma, Tara Chand (2004). Meaning Of Lifelong Learning. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. p. 56. ISBN   81-7625-484-3.
  10. ↑ Keith, Davies, W.; Norman, Longworth (2013). Lifelong Learning. Oxon: Routledge. p. 21. ISBN   978-0749419721.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Yilmaz, Kaya (2008). "Constructivism: Its Theoretical Underpinnings, Variations, and Implications for Classroom Instruction". Educational Horizons. 86 (3): 161–172.
  12. ↑ Whyte, Cassandra B/ (2002). "Great Expectations for Higher Education". Speech at Higher Education Round Table Event. Oxford, England.
  13. ↑ Whyte, Cassandra B. (1989) "Student Affairs-The Future". Journal of College Student Personnel. 30.(1) 86-89.
  14. ↑ Aspin, David N. & Chapman, Judith D. (2007) "Lifelong Learning Concepts and Conceptions" in: David N. Aspin, ed.: Philosophical Perspectives on Lifelong Learning, Springer. ISBN   1-4020-6192-7
  15. ↑ Blaschke, Lisa Marie (2012). "Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of Heutagogical Practice and Self-Determined Learning". The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. Athabasca University. 13 (1): 56–71. doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1076 . Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  16. ↑ Learned, William S. The American Public Library and the Diffusion of Knowledge. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1924.
  17. ↑ Lyman, Helen. Adult Education Activities in Public Libraries (Chicago: American Library Association, 1954).
  18. ↑ Adult Education Act, Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act Amendments, Pub. L. 89-750, 80 Stat. 1191-1222. (1966)
  19. ↑ Monroe, Margaret E. "The Evolution of Literacy Programs in the Context of Library Adult Education," Library Trends 35 (Fall 1986).
  20. ↑ Monroe, Margaret Ellen and Kathleen M. Heim. (1991). Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.) Microform, ERIC: ED 341 393. U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.
  21. ↑ U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services. "Championing Lifelong Learning" FY 2022-2026 Strategic Plan
  22. ↑ Commission of the European Communities. (2001, November 21). Making a European Area of Lifelong Learning a Reality
  23. ↑ "Higher Education at the Crossroads of Disruption: the University of the 21st Century, Andreas Kaplan, Emerald Publishing House, London" . Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  24. ↑ Eynon, Rebecca; Malmberg, Lars‐Erik (March 2021). "Lifelong learning and the Internet: Who benefits most from learning online?". British Journal of Educational Technology. 52 (2): 569–583. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13041 . ISSN   0007-1013.
  25. ↑ Dunlap, J. C., & Lowenthal, P. R. (in press). Learning, unlearning, and relearning: Using Web 2.0 technologies to support the development of lifelong learning skills. In G. D. Magoulas (Ed.), E-infrastructures and technologies for lifelong learning: Next generation environments. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
  26. 1 2 Merriam, S. B. & Caffarella, R.S. (2007) Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Josseey-Bass (3rd. Edition)
  27. ↑ Mackeracher, D. (2004). Making Sense of Adult Learning, Second Edition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
  28. 1 2 Livingston, Jennifer A. (1997) Metacognition: An Overview http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Metacog.htm Archived 2009-04-18 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ↑ "UNL | Cognitive Strategy Instruction | Self-Regulation". Archived from the original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2012-10-18.
  30. ↑ "Instructional Strategies for Cognitive Strategy Instruction - eAdultEducation.org". Archived from the original on 2013-03-20. Retrieved 2012-10-18.
  31. ↑ UNESCO. 1996. Learning: The Treasure Within. Report of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century. Paris, UNESCO. 
  32. 1 2 Keevy, James; Chakroun, Borhene (2015). Level-setting and recognition of learning outcomes: The use of level descriptors in the twenty-first century (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 27–28. ISBN   978-92-3-100138-3.
  33. ↑ Tawil, S. and Cougoureux, M. 2013. Revisiting learning: the treasure within. Assessing the influence of the 1996 Delors report. Education Research and Foresight Occasional Paper no. 4, January. Paris, UNESCO. 
  34. ↑ "Academy of Lifelong Learning". University of Delaware. 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-06.
  35. ↑ "Wszechnica Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego". The Jagiellonian University. 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-15.
  36. ↑ "Credit for Lifelong Learning (CLL)". 30 April 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 "Bangladesh Open University - Home". www.bou.edu.bd. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  38. ↑ Agency, Canada Revenue. "Lifelong Learning Plan (LLP) - Canada.ca". www.cra-arc.gc.ca. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  39. ↑ Marope, P.T.M.; Chakroun, B.; Holmes, K.P. (2015). Unleashing the Potential: Transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training. UNESCO. pp. 119–120. ISBN   978-92-3-100091-1.
  40. ↑ UNESCO (2016). Partnering for prosperity: education for green and inclusive growth; Global education monitoring report, 2016; summary (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 11–12.
  41. ↑ Newman, Anne B (2023-06-16). Lipsitz, Lewis A (ed.). "The Epidemiology and Societal Impact of Aging-Related Functional Limitations: A Looming Public Health Crisis". The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 78 (Supplement_1): 4–7. doi:10.1093/gerona/glad021. ISSN   1079-5006. PMC  10272977. PMID   37325965.
  42. ↑ Moonga, Jubilee; Likupe, Gloria (July 2016). "A systematic literature review on nurses' and health care support workers' experiences of caring for people with dementia on orthopaedic wards". Journal of Clinical Nursing. 25 (13–14): 1789–1804. doi:10.1111/jocn.13158. PMID   26991944.
  43. ↑ Wimo, Anders; Seeher, Katrin; Cataldi, Rodrigo; Cyhlarova, Eva; Dielemann, Joseph L.; Frisell, Oskar; Guerchet, Maëlenn; Jönsson, Linus; Malaha, Angeladine Kenne; Nichols, Emma; Pedroza, Paola; Prince, Martin; Knapp, Martin; Dua, Tarun (2023-01-08). "The worldwide costs of dementia in 2019". Alzheimer's & Dementia. 19 (7): 2865–2873. doi: 10.1002/alz.12901 . ISSN   1552-5260. PMID   36617519.
  44. ↑ US Department of Health and Human Services (2007). "Growing Older in America : The Health & Retirement Study" (PDF).
  45. 1 2 Ayenigbara, Israel Oluwasegun (2022-05-20). "Preventive Measures against the Development of Dementia in Old Age". Korean Journal of Family Medicine. 43 (3): 157–167. doi:10.4082/kjfm.21.0030. ISSN   2092-6715. PMC   9136504 . PMID   35610962.
  46. ↑ Grady, Denise (2012-03-07). "Exercising an Aging Brain". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2023-07-15.
  47. 1 2 3 Strom, Robert D.; Strom, Paris S. (2016-01-02). "Grandparent education and intergenerational assessment of learning". Educational Gerontology. 42 (1): 25–36. doi:10.1080/03601277.2015.1059148. ISSN   0360-1277. S2CID   146680601.
  48. ↑ Stern, Yaakov (2009-08-01). "Cognitive reserve". Neuropsychologia. 47 (10): 2015–2028. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004. ISSN   0028-3932. PMC   2739591 . PMID   19467352.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Nelson, Monica E.; Jester, Dylan J.; Petkus, Andrew J.; Andel, Ross (2021-06-01). "Cognitive Reserve, Alzheimer's Neuropathology, and Risk of Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Neuropsychology Review. 31 (2): 233–250. doi:10.1007/s11065-021-09478-4. ISSN   1573-6660. PMC   7790730 . PMID   33415533.
  50. ↑ Bennett, David A.; Arnold, Steven E.; Valenzuela, Michael J.; Brayne, Carol; Schneider, Julie A. (2014-01-01). "Cognitive and social lifestyle: links with neuropathology and cognition in late life". Acta Neuropathologica. 127 (1): 137–150. doi:10.1007/s00401-013-1226-2. ISSN   1432-0533. PMC   4054865 . PMID   24356982.
  51. ↑ "History of dementia research". qbi.uq.edu.au. 2017-09-13. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
  52. 1 2 3 4 Hussenoeder, Felix S.; Riedel-Heller, Steffi G. (2018-12-01). "Primary prevention of dementia: from modifiable risk factors to a public brain health agenda?". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 53 (12): 1289–1301. doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1598-7. ISSN   1433-9285. PMID   30255384. S2CID   52821084.
  53. 1 2 Gilleard, C. J. (February 1997). "Education and Alzheimer's disease: A review of recent international epidemiological studies". Aging & Mental Health. 1 (1): 33–46. doi:10.1080/13607869757362. ISSN   1360-7863.
  54. ↑ Hosnjak, Am; Ilic, B; Kurtovic, B; Ledinski, Ficko S; Smrekar, M. (2020-12-01). "Development Strategies in the Field of Lifelong Learning of Older Adults". Acta Medica Martiniana. 20 (3): 122–132. doi: 10.2478/acm-2020-0014 . ISSN   1335-8421.

Sources

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.