Outer Space Treaty

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Outer Space Treaty
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies
Outer Space Treaty parties map colors updated 03012022.svg
  Parties
  Signatories
  Non-parties
Signed27 January 1967
Location London, Moscow and Washington, D.C.
Effective10 October 1967;56 years ago (1967-10-10)
Condition5 ratifications, including the depositary Governments
Parties115 [1] [2] [3] [4]
DepositaryGovernments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America
LanguagesEnglish, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic
Full text
Wikisource-logo.svg Outer Space Treaty of 1967 at Wikisource

The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law. Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. As of March 2024, 115 countries are parties to the treaty—including all major spacefaring nations—and another 22 are signatories. [1] [5] [6]

Contents

The Outer Space Treaty was spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s, which could reach targets through outer space. [7] The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957, followed by a subsequent arms race with the United States, hastened proposals to prohibit the use of outer space for military purposes. On 17 October 1963, the U.N. General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution prohibiting the introduction of weapons of mass destruction in outer space. Various proposals for an arms control treaty governing outer space were debated during a General Assembly session in December 1966, culminating in the drafting and adoption of the Outer Space Treaty the following January. [7]

Key provisions of the Outer Space Treaty include prohibiting nuclear weapons in space; limiting the use of the Moon and all other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes; establishing that space shall be freely explored and used by all nations; and precluding any country from claiming sovereignty over outer space or any celestial body. Although it forbids establishing military bases, testing weapons and conducting military maneuvers on celestial bodies, the treaty does not expressly ban all military activities in space, nor the establishment of military space forces or the placement of conventional weapons in space. [8] [9] From 1968 to 1984, the OST gave birth to four additional agreements: rules for activities on the Moon; liability for damages caused by spacecraft; the safe return of fallen astronauts; and the registration of space vehicles. [10]

OST provided many practical uses and was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security. The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that could lead to conflict. [7] Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining. [11] [12] [13] Nevertheless, the Outer Space Treaty is the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law, [14] and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program. [15] [16]

Provisions

The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. According to the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the core principles of the treaty are: [17]

Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It specifically limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment, are still potentially allowable. [18] In addition, the treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring a common practice permitted by the Antarctic Treaty regarding that continent. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.

Article II of the treaty explicitly forbids any government from "appropriating" a celestial body such as the Moon or a planet, whether by declaration, use, occupation, or "any other means". [19] However, the state that launches a space object, such as a satellite or space station, retains jurisdiction and control over that object; [20] by extension, a state is also liable for damages caused by its space object. [21]

Responsibility for activities in space

Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty" and that States Party shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.

As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment." [22] [23]

Applicability in the 21st century

Being primarily an arms control treaty for the peaceful use of outer space, the Outer Space Treaty offers limited and ambiguous regulations to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining. [11] [13] [24] It is therefore debated whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation, or whether the use of such resources encompasses the commercial use and exploitation. [25]

Seeking clearer guidelines, private U.S. companies lobbied the U.S. government, which in 2015 introduced the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 legalizing space mining. [26] Similar national legislation to legalize the appropriation of extraterrestrial resources are now being introduced by other countries, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India, and Russia. [11] [24] [27] [28] In addition, the U.S. has led the creation of a series of bilateral agreements known as the Artemis Accords that seek to clarify a number of issue related to the Outer Space Treaty, including the use of space resources. [29] This has created some controversy regarding legal claims over the mining of celestial bodies for profit. [24] [25]

1976 Bogota Declaration

The "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", also known as the "Bogota Declaration", was one of the few attempts to challenge the Outer Space Treaty. It was promulgated in 1976 by eight equatorial countries to assert sovereignty over those portions of the geostationary orbit that continuously lie over the signatory nations' territory. [30] These claims did not receive wider international support or recognition, and were subsequently abandoned. [31]

Influence on space law

As the first international legal instrument concerning space, the Outer Space Treaty is considered the "cornerstone" of space law. [32] [33] It was also the first major achievement of the United Nations in this area of law, following the adoption of the first U.N. General Assembly resolution on space in 1958, [34] and the first meeting of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) the subsequent year. [35]

Within roughly a decade of the treaty's entry into force, several other treaties were brokered by the U.N. to further develop the legal framework for activities in space: [33]

With the exception of the Moon Treaty, to which only 18 nations are party, all other treaties on space law have been ratified by most major space-faring nations (namely those capable of orbital spaceflight). [36] COPUOS coordinates these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction, aided by the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs.

List of parties

The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of March 2024, 115 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 22 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification. [1]

Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, which varied by location: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington, D.C. Also indicated is whether the state became a party by way of signature and subsequent ratification, by accession to the treaty after it had closed for signature, or by succession of states after separation from some other party to the treaty.

State [1] [2] [3] [4] SignedDepositedMethod
Flag of the Taliban.svg  Afghanistan
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 30 Jan 1967 (M)
  • 17 Mar 1988 (L, M)
  • 21 Mar 1988 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Algeria.svg  Algeria 27 Jan 1992 (W)Accession
Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg  Antigua and Barbuda
  • 16 Nov 1988 (W)
  • 26 Dec 1988 (M)
  • 26 Jan 1989 (L)
Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 18 Apr 1967 (M)
26 Mar 1969 (M, W)Ratification
Flag of Armenia.svg  Armenia 28 Mar 2018 (M)Accession
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia 27 Jan 1967 (W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Austria.svg  Austria 20 Feb 1967 (L, M, W)26 Feb 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Azerbaijan.svg  Azerbaijan 9 Sep 2015 (L)Accession
Flag of the Bahamas.svg  Bahamas
  • 11 Aug 1976 (L)
  • 13 Aug 1976 (W)
  • 30 Aug 1976 (M)
Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of Bahrain.svg  Bahrain 7 Aug 2019 (M)Accession
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh
  • 14 Jan 1986 (L)
  • 17 Jan 1986 (W)
  • 24 Jan 1986 (M)
Accession
Flag of Barbados.svg  Barbados 12 Sep 1968 (W)Accession
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 10 Feb 1967 (M)31 Oct 1967 (M)Ratification
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, M)
  • 2 Feb 1967 (W)
  • 30 Mar 1973 (W)
  • 31 Mar 1973 (L, M)
Ratification
Flag of Benin.svg  Benin
  • 19 Jun 1986 (M)
  • 2 Jul 1986 (L)
  • 7 Jul 1986 (W)
Accession
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg  Bosnia and Herzegovina 29 Sep 2020 (L)Accession
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil
  • 30 Jan 1967 (M)
  • 2 Feb 1967 (L, W)
5 Mar 1969 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 28 Mar 1967 (M)
  • 11 Apr 1967 (W)
  • 19 Apr 1967 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg  Burkina Faso 3 Mar 1967 (W)18 Jun 1968 (W)Ratification
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Chile.svg  Chile
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 3 Feb 1967 (L)
  • 20 Feb 1967 (M)
8 Oct 1981 (W)Ratification
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China
  • 30 Dec 1983 (W)
  • 6 Jan 1984 (M)
  • 12 Jan 1984 (L)
Accession
Flag of Colombia.svg  Colombia 27 Jan 1967 (W)21 Mar 2024 (W)Ratification
Flag of Croatia.svg  Croatia 10 Mar 2023 (W)Accession
Flag of Cuba.svg  Cuba 3 Jun 1977 (M)Accession
Flag of Cyprus.svg  Cyprus
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 15 Feb 1967 (M)
  • 16 Feb 1967 (L)
  • 5 Jul 1972 (L, W)
  • 20 Sep 1972 (M)
Ratification
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czech Republic
  • 1 Jan 1993 (M, W)
  • 29 Sep 1993 (L)
Succession from Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czechoslovakia
Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg  Dominican Republic 27 Jan 1967 (W)21 Nov 1968 (W)Ratification
Flag of Ecuador.svg  Ecuador
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 16 May 1967 (L)
  • 7 Jun 1967 (M)
7 Mar 1969 (W)Ratification
Flag of Egypt.svg  Egypt 27 Jan 1967 (M, W)
  • 10 Oct 1967 (W)
  • 23 Jan 1968 (M)
Ratification
Flag of El Salvador.svg  El Salvador 27 Jan 1967 (W)15 Jan 1969 (W)Ratification
Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg  Equatorial Guinea 16 Jan 1989 (M)Accession
Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia 19 Apr 2010 (M)Accession
Flag of Fiji.svg  Fiji
  • 18 Jul 1972 (W)
  • 14 Aug 1972 (L)
  • 29 Aug 1972 (M)
Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of Finland.svg  Finland 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)Jul 12, 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of France.svg  France 25 Sep 1967 (L, M, W)5 Aug 1970 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Feb 1971 (L, W)Ratification
Flag of Greece.svg  Greece 27 Jan 1967 (W)19 Jan 1971 (L)Ratification
Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg  Guinea-Bissau 20 Aug 1976 (M)Accession
Flag of Hungary.svg  Hungary 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)26 Jun 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)5 Feb 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of India.svg  India 3 Mar 1967 (L, M, W)18 Jan 1982 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 30 Jan 1967 (M)
  • 14 Feb 1967 (L)
25 Jun 2002 (L)Ratification
Flag of Iraq.svg  Iraq
  • 27 Feb 1967 (L, W)
  • 9 Mar 1967 (M)
  • 4 Dec 1968 (M)
  • 23 Sep 1969 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Ireland.svg  Ireland 27 Jan 1967 (L, W)
  • 17 Jul 1968 (W)
  • 19 Jul 1968 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 18 Feb 1977 (W)
  • 1 Mar 1977 (L)
  • 4 Apr 1977 (M)
Ratification
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)4 May 1972 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Jamaica.svg  Jamaica 29 Jun 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 6 Aug 1970 (W)
  • 10 Aug 1970 (L)
  • 21 Aug 1970 (M)
Ratification
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Kazakhstan 11 Jun 1998 (M)Accession
Flag of Kenya.svg  Kenya 19 Jan 1984 (L)Accession
Flag of North Korea.svg  North Korea 5 Mar 2009 (M)Accession
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea 27 Jan 1967 (W)13 Oct 1967 (W)Ratification
Flag of Kuwait.svg  Kuwait
  • 7 Jun 1972 (W)
  • 20 Jun 1972 (L)
  • 4 Jul 1972 (M)
Accession
Flag of Laos.svg  Laos
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 30 Jan 1967 (L)
  • 2 Feb 1967 (M)
  • 27 Nov 1972 (M)
  • 29 Nov 1972 (W)
  • 15 Jan 1973 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Lebanon.svg  Lebanon 23 Feb 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 31 Mar 1969 (L, M)
  • 30 Jun 1969 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Libya.svg  Libya 3 Jul 1968 (W)Accession
Flag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania 25 Mar 2013 (W)Accession
Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Luxembourg
  • 27 Jan 1967 (M, W)
  • 31 Jan 1967 (L)
17 Jan 2006 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Madagascar.svg  Madagascar 22 Aug 1968 (W)Accession
Flag of Mali.svg  Mali 11 Jun 1968 (M)Accession
Flag of Malta.svg  Malta 22 May 2017 (L)Accession
Flag of Mauritius.svg  Mauritius
  • 7 Apr 1969 (W)
  • 21 Apr 1969 (L)
  • 13 May 1969 (M)
Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)31 Jan 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Mongolia.svg  Mongolia 27 Jan 1967 (M)10 Oct 1967 (M)Ratification
Flag of Morocco.svg  Morocco
  • 21 Dec 1967 (L, M)
  • 22 Dec 1967 (W)
Accession
Flag of Myanmar.svg  Myanmar 22 May 1967 (L, M, W)18 Mar 1970 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Nepal.svg    Nepal
  • 3 Feb 1967 (M, W)
  • 6 Feb 1967 (L)
  • 10 Oct 1967 (L)
  • 16 Oct 1967 (M)
  • 22 Nov 1967 (W)
Ratification
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 10 Feb 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1969 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)31 May 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Nicaragua.svg  Nicaragua
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 13 Feb 1967 (L)
  • 30 Jun 2017 (W)
  • 10 Aug 2017 (M)
  • 14 Aug 2017 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Niger.svg  Niger 1 Feb 1967 (W)
  • 17 Apr 1967 (L)
  • 3 May 1967 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria 14 Nov 1967 (L)Accession
Flag of Norway.svg  Norway 3 Feb 1967 (L, M, W)1 Jul 1969 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Oman.svg  Oman 4 Feb 2022 (L)Accession
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 12 Sep 1967 (L, M, W)8 Apr 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Panama.svg  Panama 27 Jan 1967 (W)9 Aug 2023 (W)Ratification
Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg  Papua New Guinea
  • 27 Oct 1980 (L)
  • 13 Nov 1980 (M)
  • 16 Mar 1981 (W)
Succession from Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia
Flag of Paraguay.svg  Paraguay 22 Dec 2016 (L)Accession
Flag of Peru.svg  Peru 30 Jun 1967 (W)
  • 28 Feb 1979 (M)
  • 1 Mar 1979 (L)
  • 21 Mar 1979 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)30 Jan 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Portugal.svg  Portugal 29 May 1996 (L)Accession
Flag of Qatar.svg  Qatar 13 Mar 2012 (W)Accession
Flag of Romania.svg  Romania 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)9 Apr 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification as the Flag of the Soviet Union.svg  Soviet Union
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 13 May 1999 (L)Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of San Marino.svg  San Marino
  • 21 Apr 1967 (W)
  • 24 Apr 1967 (L)
  • 6 Jun 1967 (M)
  • 29 Oct 1968 (W)
  • 21 Nov 1968 (M)
  • 3 Feb 1969 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia 17 Dec 1976 (W)Accession
Flag of Seychelles.svg  Seychelles 5 Jan 1978 (L)Accession
Flag of Sierra Leone.svg  Sierra Leone
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, M)
  • 16 May 1967 (W)
  • 13 Jul 1967 (M)
  • 14 Jul 1967 (W)
  • 25 Oct 1967 (L)
Ratification
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore 10 Sep 1976 (L, M, W)Accession
Flag of Slovakia.svg  Slovakia
  • 1 Jan 1993 (M, W)
  • 17 May 1993 (L)
Succession from Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czechoslovakia
Flag of Slovenia.svg  Slovenia 8 Feb 2019 (L)Accession
Flag of South Africa.svg  South Africa 1 Mar 1967 (W)
  • 30 Sep 1968 (W)
  • 8 Oct 1968 (L)
  • 14 Nov 1968 (M)
Ratification
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain
  • 27 Nov 1968 (L)
  • 7 Dec 1968 (W)
Accession
Flag of Sri Lanka.svg  Sri Lanka 10 Mar 1967 (L)18 Nov 1986 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)11 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, W)
  • 30 Jan 1967 (M)
18 Dec 1969 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Syria.svg  Syria 19 Nov 1968 (M)Accession
Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 5 Sep 1968 (L)
  • 9 Sep 1968 (M)
  • 10 Sep 1968 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Togo.svg  Togo 27 Jan 1967 (W)26 Jun 1989 (W)Ratification
Flag of Tonga.svg  Tonga
  • 22 Jun 1971 (M)
  • 7 Jul 1971 (L, W)
Succession from Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of Tunisia.svg  Tunisia
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, W)
  • 15 Feb 1967 (M)
  • 28 Mar 1968 (L)
  • 4 Apr 1968 (M)
  • 17 Apr 1968 (W)
Ratification
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)27 Mar 1968 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Uganda.svg  Uganda 24 Apr 1968 (W)Accession
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 10 Feb 1967 (M)31 Oct 1967 (M)Ratification
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates 4 Oct 2000 (W)Accession
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of the United States.svg  United States 27 Jan 1967 (L, M, W)10 Oct 1967 (L, M, W)Ratification
Flag of Uruguay.svg  Uruguay
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 30 Jan 1967 (M)
31 Aug 1970 (W)Ratification
Flag of Venezuela.svg  Venezuela 27 Jan 1967 (W)3 Mar 1970 (W)Ratification
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 20 Jun 1980 (M)Accession
Flag of Yemen.svg  Yemen 1 Jun 1979 (M)Accession
Flag of Zambia.svg  Zambia
  • 20 Aug 1973 (W)
  • 21 Aug 1973 (M)
  • 28 Aug 1973 (L)
Accession

Partially recognized state abiding by treaty

The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently recognized by 11 UN member states, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the Republic of China's (ROC) ratification as "illegal". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that it still considers the ROC to be "bound by its obligations". [5]

StateSignedDepositedMethod
Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Republic of China 27 Jan 196724 Jul 1970Ratification

States that have signed but not ratified

21 states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

StateSigned
Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg  Bolivia 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Botswana.svg  Botswana 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Burundi.svg  Burundi 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Cameroon.svg  Cameroon 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of the Central African Republic.svg  Central African Republic 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg  Democratic Republic of the Congo
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 29 Apr 1967 (M)
  • 4 May 1967 (L)
Flag of Ethiopia.svg  Ethiopia
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, W)
  • 10 Feb 1967 (M)
Flag of The Gambia.svg  Gambia 2 Jun 1967 (L)
Flag of Ghana.svg  Ghana
  • 27 Jan 1967 (W)
  • 15 Feb 1967 (M)
  • 3 Mar 1967 (L)
Flag of Guyana.svg  Guyana 3 Feb 1967 (W)
Flag of Haiti.svg  Haiti 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of the Vatican City - 2001 version.svg  Holy See 5 Apr 1967 (L)
Flag of Honduras.svg  Honduras 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 27 Jan 1967 (L)
Flag of Jordan.svg  Jordan 2 Feb 1967 (W)
Flag of Lesotho.svg  Lesotho 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Malaysia.svg  Malaysia
  • 20 Feb 1967 (W)
  • 21 Feb 1967 (L)
  • 3 May 1967 (M)
Flag of the Philippines.svg  Philippines
  • 27 Jan 1967 (L, W)
  • 29 Apr 1967 (M)
Flag of Rwanda.svg  Rwanda 27 Jan 1967 (W)
Flag of Somalia.svg  Somalia 2 Feb 1967 (W)
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Trinidad and Tobago
  • 24 Jul 1967 (L)
  • 17 Aug 1967 (M)
  • 28 Sep 1967 (W)

List of non-parties

The remaining UN member states and United Nations General Assembly observer states which have neither ratified nor signed the Outer Space Treaty are: [37]

See also

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The politics of outer space includes space treaties, law in space, international cooperation and conflict in space exploration, international economics, and the hypothetical political impact of any contact with extraterrestrial intelligence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common heritage of humanity</span> Principle of international law

Common heritage of humanity is a principle of international law that holds the defined territorial areas and elements of humanity's common heritage should be held in trust for future generations and be protected from exploitation by individual nation states or corporations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space policy of the United States</span>

The space policy of the United States includes both the making of space policy through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the United States' civilian and military space programs through regulatory agencies. The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program. At the moment, the US space policy is aimed at the exploration of the Moon and the subsequent colonization of Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015</span> Allows US industries to exploit space resources

The Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, sometimes referred to as the Spurring Private Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship (SPACE) Act of 2015, is an update of the United States Government of its commercial space use, legislated in 2015. The update to US law explicitly allows US citizens and industries to "engage in the commercial exploration and exploitation of space resources" including water and minerals. The right does not extend to extraterrestrial life, so anything that is alive may not be exploited commercially.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunar resources</span> Potential natural resources on the Moon

The Moon bears substantial natural resources which could be exploited in the future. Potential lunar resources may encompass processable materials such as volatiles and minerals, along with geologic structures such as lava tubes that, together, might enable lunar habitation. The use of resources on the Moon may provide a means of reducing the cost and risk of lunar exploration and beyond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis Accords</span> Multilateral agreement on human moon exploration

The Artemis Accords is a series of non-binding bilateral arrangements between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space. The accords are related to the Artemis program, an American-led effort to return humans to the Moon by 2026, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond. As of April 19, 2024, thirty-nine countries have signed the accords, including nineteen in Europe, eight in Asia, five in South America, three in North America, three in Africa and two in Oceania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space sustainability</span> Activity aimed at minimising space environmental impact

Space sustainability aims to maintain the safety and health of the space environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space diplomacy</span> Science diplomacy related to space exploration

Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in science diplomacy as applied to the expanded exploration of space. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and commercialization of space travel.

References

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    "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies [London version]". Foreign and Commonwealth Office . Retrieved 27 April 2019.
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  6. In addition, the Republic of China in Taiwan, which is currently recognized by 11 UN member states, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.
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Further reading