Peyote

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Peyote
Peyote Cactus.jpg
Peyote in the wild
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Cactaceae
Subfamily: Cactoideae
Genus: Lophophora
Species:
L. williamsii
Binomial name
Lophophora williamsii
Synonyms

Echinocactus williamsii Lemaire ex Salm-Dyck
Lophophora lewinii (K. Schumann) Rusby
Lophophora echinata Croizat
Lophophora fricii Habermann
L. williamsii var. fricii (Habermann) Grym
L. diffusa subsp. fricii (Habermann) Halda
Lophophora jourdaniana Haberman

The peyote ( /peɪˈoʊti/ ; Lophophora williamsii /ləˈfɒfərəwɪliˈæmziaɪ/ ) is a small, spineless cactus which contains psychoactive alkaloids, [2] particularly mescaline. [3] Peyote is a Spanish word derived from the Nahuatl peyōtl ( [ˈpejoːt͡ɬ] ), meaning "caterpillar cocoon", from a root peyōni, "to glisten". [4] [5] [6] Peyote is native to Mexico and southwestern Texas. It is found primarily in the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Chihuahuan Desert and in the states of Nayarit, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and San Luis Potosí among scrub. It flowers from March to May, and sometimes as late as September. The flowers are pink, with thigmotactic anthers (like Opuntia ).

Known for its psychoactive properties when ingested, peyote has at least 5,500 years of entheogenic and medicinal use by indigenous North Americans.[ citation needed ]

Description

A group of Lophophora williamsii Lophophora williamsii ies.jpg
A group of Lophophora williamsii
A flowering peyote Lophophora williamsii.jpg
A flowering peyote

The various species of the genus Lophophora grow low to the ground and they often form groups with numerous, crowded shoots. The blue-green, yellow-green or sometimes reddish-green shoots are mostly flattened spheres with sunken shoot tips. They can reach heights of 2 to 7 centimeters (0.79 to 2.76 in) and diameters of 4 to 12 cm (1.6 to 4.7 in). There are often significant, vertical ribs consisting of low and rounded or hump-like bumps. From the cusp areoles arises a tuft of soft, yellowish or whitish woolly hairs. Spines are absent. Flowers are pink or white to slightly yellowish, sometimes reddish. They open during the day, are from 1 to 2.4 cm (0.39 to 0.94 in) long, and reach a diameter from 1 to 2.2 cm (0.39 to 0.87 in).

Lophophora williamsii seedling at roughly .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1+1/2 months of age L. williamsii.JPG
Lophophora williamsii seedling at roughly 1+1⁄2 months of age

The cactus produces flowers sporadically; these are followed by small edible pink fruit. The club-shaped to elongated, fleshy fruits are bare and more or less rosy colored. At maturity, they are brownish-white and dry. The fruits do not burst open on their own and they are between 1.5 to 2 cm (0.59 to 0.79 in) long. They contain black, pear-shaped seeds that are 1 to 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide. The seeds require hot and humid conditions to germinate. Peyote contains a large spectrum of phenethylamine alkaloids. [2] The principal one is mescaline for which the content of Lophophora williamsii is about 0.4% fresh [7] (undried) and 3–6% dried. [7]

Taxonomy

French botanist Charles Antoine Lemaire described the species as Echinocactus williamsii in 1845. It was placed in the new genus Lophophora in 1894 by American botanist John Merle Coulter.

Distribution and habitat

Range of wild peyote Distribucion del Peyote.jpg
Range of wild peyote

L. williamsii is native to southern North America, mainly distributed in Mexico. In the United States, it grows in Southern Texas. In Mexico, it grows in the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas in the north to San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas. [8] [9] [10] It is primarily found at elevations of 100 to 1,500 m (330 to 4,920 ft) and exceptionally up to 1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the Chihuahuan desert, but is also present in the more mild climate of Tamaulipas. Its habitat is primarily in desert scrub, particularly thorn scrub in Tamaulipas. It is common on or near limestone hills. [11]

Cultivation

Peyote is extremely slow growing. Cultivated specimens grow considerably faster, sometimes taking less than three years to go from seedling to mature flowering adult. More rapid growth can be achieved by grafting peyote onto mature San Pedro root stock. The top of the above-ground part of the cactus, the crown, consists of disc-shaped buttons. These are cut above the roots and sometimes dried. When done properly, the top of the root forms a callus and the root does not rot. When poor harvesting techniques are used, however, the entire plant dies. [12] Currently in South Texas, peyote grows naturally but has been over-harvested, to the point that the state has listed it as an endangered species. [13] Cultivation is an important conservation tool for this particular species. [14] Promoting San Pedro as a Peyote substitute may act as an intervention to reduce Peyote consumption. [15]

Uses

Psychoactivity and folk medicine

Dried Peyote (Lophophora williamsii), containing around 5-6% mescaline by weight Dried Peyote.jpg
Dried Peyote (Lophophora williamsii), containing around 5-6% mescaline by weight

When used for its psychoactive properties, common doses for pure mescaline range from roughly 200 to 400 mg. This translates to a dose of roughly 10 to 20 g of dried peyote buttons of average potency; however, potency varies considerably between samples, making it difficult to measure doses accurately without first extracting the mescaline. The concentration of mescaline is typically highest at the sides of the peyote button. [16] The effects last about 10 to 12 hours. [17] Peyote is reported to trigger rich visual or auditory effects (see synesthesia) and spiritual or philosophical insights. [18] [19]

In addition to psychoactive use, some Native American tribes use the plant in folk medicine. They employ peyote for varied ailments. [20] Although uncommon, use of peyote and mescaline has been associated with poisoning. [21] Peyote contains the alkaloid, hordenine (also called peyocactin). [22]

Chemical structure of hordenine (peyocactin), a compound contained in the peyote cactus Hordenin - Hordenine.svg
Chemical structure of hordenine (peyocactin), a compound contained in the peyote cactus

History

In 2005, researchers used radiocarbon dating and alkaloid analysis to study two specimens of peyote buttons found in archaeological digs from a site called Shumla Cave No. 5 on the Rio Grande in Texas. The results dated the specimens to between 3780 and 3660 BCE. Alkaloid extraction yielded approximately 2% of the alkaloids including mescaline in both samples. This indicates that native North Americans were likely to have used peyote since at least 5500 years ago. [23]

Specimens from a burial cave in west central Coahuila, Mexico have been similarly analyzed and dated to 810 to 1070 CE. [24]

Peyote in Wirikuta, Mexico Lophophorawilliamsii.jpg
Peyote in Wirikuta, Mexico

From earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by indigenous peoples, such as the Huichol [25] of northern Mexico and by various Native American tribes, native to or relocated to the Southern Plains states of present-day Oklahoma and Texas. Its usage was also recorded among various Southwestern Athabaskan-language tribal groups. The Tonkawa, the Mescalero, and Lipan Apache were the source or first practitioners of peyote religion in the regions north of present-day Mexico. [26] They were also the principal group to introduce peyote to newly arrived migrants, such as the Comanche and Kiowa from the Northern Plains. The religious, ceremonial, and healing uses of peyote may date back over 2000 years. [27]

Under the auspices of what came to be known as the Native American Church, in the 19th century, American Indians in more widespread regions to the north began to use peyote in religious practices, as part of a revival of native spirituality. Its members refer to peyote as "the sacred medicine", and use it to combat spiritual, physical, and other social ills. Concerned about the drug's psychoactive effects, between the 1880s and 1930s, U.S. authorities attempted to ban Native American religious rituals involving peyote, including the Ghost Dance. Today the Native American Church is one among several religious organizations to use peyote as part of its religious practice. Some users claim the drug connects them to God. [28]

Traditional Navajo belief or ceremonial practice did not mention the use of peyote before its introduction by the neighboring Utes. The Navajo Nation now has the most members of the Native American Church.[ citation needed ]

John Raleigh Briggs (1851–1907) was the first to draw scientific attention of the Western scientific world to peyote. [29] Louis Lewin described Anhalonium lewinii in 1888. [30] British sexologist Havelock Ellis self experimented with it on Good Friday 1896, publishing details in 1898. [31] Arthur Heffter conducted self experiments on its effects in 1897. [32] Similarly, Norwegian ethnographer Carl Sofus Lumholtz [33] studied and wrote about the use of peyote among the Indians of Mexico. Lumholtz also reported that, lacking other intoxicants, Texas Rangers captured by Union forces during the American Civil War soaked peyote buttons in water and became "intoxicated with the liquid". [34]

Adverse reactions

A study published in 2007 found no evidence of long-term cognitive problems related to peyote use in Native American Church ceremonies, but researchers stressed their results may not apply to those who use peyote in other contexts. [35] A four-year large-scale study of Navajo who regularly ingested peyote found only one case where peyote was associated with a psychotic break in an otherwise healthy person; other psychotic episodes were attributed to peyote use in conjunction with pre-existing substance abuse or mental health problems. [36] Later research found that those with pre-existing mental health issues are more likely to have adverse reactions to peyote. [37] Peyote use does not appear to be associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (a.k.a. "flashbacks") after religious use. [38] Peyote also does not seem to be associated with physical dependence, but some users may experience psychological dependence. [39]

Peyote can have strong emetic effects, and one death has been attributed to esophageal bleeding caused by vomiting after peyote ingestion in a Native American patient with a history of alcohol abuse. [40] Peyote is also known to cause potentially serious variations in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and pupillary dilation. [41] [21]

Research into the Huichol natives of central-western Mexico, who have taken peyote regularly for an estimated 1,500 years or more, found no evidence of chromosome damage in either men or women. [42]

According to a statement made by Gertrude Bonnin in 1916, a member of the Sioux tribe, the use of Peyote had been the direct cause of death among 25 Utes in last two years. [43]

Cultural significance

Wixarika (Huichol) culture

The Wixarika religion consists of four principal deities: Corn, Kayumarie (Blue Deer), Hikuri (Peyote), and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God. Schaefer has interpreted this to mean that peyote is the soul of their religious culture and a visionary sacrament that opens a pathway to the other deities. [44]

Religion

Native American Church

Peyote is considered sacramental and sacred in the Native American Church, also known as Peyotism. It is used in rituals for "a closer understanding of the spiritual world" [45] and to commune with God and the spirits (including the deceased) in order to receive spiritual power, guidance, reproof, and healing. To many followers, peyote itself is personified as "Peyote Spirit", considered to be either God's equivalent for the Indians to Jesus for mainstream Christians, or Jesus himself. [46]

Peyote is consumed during an all-night healing ceremony inside a hogan, a traditional Navajo building, or a tipi. The ritual starts around 8 P.M Saturday, and includes prayer, singing, sacramental eating of peyote, water rites, and contemplation. It concludes with a communion breakfast on Sunday morning. [46]

Legality

United Nations

Canada

Mescaline is listed as a Schedule III controlled substance under the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, but peyote is specifically exempt. [47] Possession and use of peyote plants is legal. [48]

United States

Non-drug uses of peyote in religious ceremonies by the Native American Church and its members is exempt from registration. [49] This law has been codified as a statute in the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, and made part of the common law in Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh , (5th Cir. 1991); [50] it is also in administrative law at the 21 CFR 1307.31 which states for "Special Exempt Persons":

Section 1307.31 Native American Church. The listing of peyote as a controlled substance in Schedule I does not apply to the nondrug use of peyote in bona fide religious ceremonies of the Native American Church, and members of the Native American Church so using peyote are exempt from registration. Any person who manufactures peyote for or distributes peyote to the Native American Church, however, is required to obtain registration annually and to comply with all other requirements of law.

U.S. v. Boyll, 774 F.Supp. 1333 (D.N.M. 1991) [51] addresses this racial issue specifically and concludes:

For the reasons set out in this Memorandum Opinion and Order, the Court holds that, pursuant to 21 C.F.R. § 1307.31 (1990), the classification of peyote as a Schedule I controlled substance, see 21 U.S.C. § 812(c), Schedule I(c)(12), does not apply to the importation, possession or use of peyote for 'bona fide' ceremonial use by members of the Native American Church, regardless of race.

Following the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments of 1994, United States federal law (and many state laws) protects the harvest, possession, consumption and cultivation of peyote as part of "bona fide religious ceremonies" the federal statute is the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, codified at 42 U.S.C.   § 1996a, "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons. US v. Boyll expanded permitted use to all persons engaged in traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race. All US states with the exception of Idaho, Utah, and Texas allow usage by non-native, non-enrolled persons in the context of ceremonies of the Native American Church. Some states such as Arizona additionally exempt any general bona fide religious activity or spiritual intent. US jurisdictions enacted these specific statutory exemptions in reaction to the US Supreme Court's decision in Employment Division v. Smith , 494 U.S. 872 (1990), which held that laws prohibiting the use of peyote that do not specifically exempt religious use nevertheless do not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Though use in Native American Church ceremonies or traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race, is legal under US federal law and additional uses are legal under some state laws, peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance. [52]

The US military prohibits inductees from enlistment for prior drug usage, however past usage of peyote is permissible if found to be used in accordance with Native American cultural practices. [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>The Doors of Perception</i> 1954 book by Aldous Huxley

The Doors of Perception is an autobiographical book written by Aldous Huxley. Published in 1954, it elaborates on his psychedelic experience under the influence of mescaline in May 1953. Huxley recalls the insights he experienced, ranging from the "purely aesthetic" to "sacramental vision", and reflects on their philosophical and psychological implications. In 1956, he published Heaven and Hell, another essay which elaborates these reflections further. The two works have since often been published together as one book; the title of both comes from William Blake's 1793 book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mescaline</span> Naturally occurring psychedelic compound

Mescaline or mescalin (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a naturally occurring psychedelic protoalkaloid of the substituted phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic drug</span> Hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drug

Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states and an apparent expansion of consciousness. Also referred to as classic hallucinogens or serotonergic hallucinogens, the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia like salvia and MDMA, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entheogen</span> Psychoactive substances that induce spiritual experiences

Entheogens are psychedelic drugs—and sometimes certain other psychoactive substances—used for engendering spiritual development or otherwise in sacred contexts. They have been used in various ways, e.g., as part of established religious rituals or as aids for personal spiritual development. Anthropological study has established that entheogens are used for religious, magical, shamanic, or spiritual purposes in many parts of the world. Entheogens have traditionally been used to supplement many diverse practices geared towards achieving transcendence, including healing, divination, meditation, yoga, sensory deprivation, asceticism, prayer, trance, rituals, chanting, imitation of sounds, hymns like peyote songs, drumming, and ecstatic dance. The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in meditation, near-death experiences, and mystical experiences. Ego dissolution is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heffter Research Institute</span> Nonprofit organization

The Heffter Research Institute is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that promotes research with classic hallucinogens and psychedelics, predominantly psilocybin, to contribute to a greater understanding of the mind and to alleviate suffering. Founded in 1993 as a virtual institute, Heffter primarily funds academic and clinical scientists and made more than $3.1 million in grants between 2011 and 2014. Heffter's recent clinical studies have focused on psilocybin-assisted treatment for end-of-life anxiety and depression in cancer patients, as well as alcohol and nicotine addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huichol</span> Indigenous people of Mexico

The Huichol or Wixárika are an indigenous people of Mexico and the United States living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango, as well as in the United States in the states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. They are best known to the larger world as the Huichol, although they refer to themselves as Wixáritari in their native Huichol language. The adjectival form of Wixáritari and name for their own language is Wixárika.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aztec use of entheogens</span> Entheogenic use by ancient Aztecs

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lophophine</span> Chemical compound

Lophophine is a putative psychedelic and entactogen drug of the methylenedioxyphenethylamine class. It is the α-demethylated homologue of MMDA, and is also closely related to mescaline.

<i>Dermatophyllum secundiflorum</i> Species of plant

Dermatophyllum secundiflorum is a species of flowering shrub or small tree in the family Fabaceae that is native to the Southwestern United States and Mexico. Its common names include Texas mountain laurel, Texas mescalbean, frijolito, and frijolillo.

<i>Solandra</i> Genus of vines

Solandra is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is named after the Swedish naturalist Daniel C. Solander.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug</span> Substance having effect(s) on the body of an individual

A drug is any chemical substance that when consumed causes a change in an organism's physiology, including its psychology, if applicable. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and other substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue.

Entheogenic drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous historical reports as well as modern, contemporary reports of indigenous groups using entheogens, chemical substances used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.

<i>Lophophora diffusa</i> Species of cactus

Lophophora diffusa, commonly known as false peyote, is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae and one of the species in the Lophophora genus. It is endemic to Mexico in the outskirts of Querétaro. This species contains zero to trace amounts of mescaline; pellotine, whose psychoactive effects are comparatively minimal, is the principal alkaloid. The species name diffusa refers to the flat tubercles that are outspread without the plant having prominent ribs.

<i>Trichocereus macrogonus <span style="font-style:normal;">var.</span> pachanoi</i> Mescaline-containing cactus

Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi is a fast-growing columnar cactus found in the Andes at 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) in altitude. It is one of a number of kinds of cacti known as San Pedro cactus. It is native to Ecuador, Peru and Colombia, but also found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Venezuela and cultivated in other parts of the world. Uses for it include traditional medicine and traditional veterinary medicine, and it is widely grown as an ornamental cactus. It has been used for healing and religious divination in the Andes Mountains region for over 3,000 years.

<i>Aztekium ritteri</i> Species of cactus

Aztekium ritteri is a species of cactus native to the Mexican state of Nuevo León.

Many cacti are known to be psychoactive, containing phenethylamine alkaloids such as mescaline. However, the two main ritualistic (folkloric) genera are Echinopsis, of which the most psychoactive species occur in the San Pedro cactus group, and Lophophora, with peyote being the most psychoactive species. Several other species pertaining to other genera are also psychoactive, though not always used with a ritualistic intent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychoactive drug</span> Chemical substance that alters nervous system function

A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent, or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance that changes the function of the nervous system and results in alterations of perception, mood, cognition, and behavior. These substances may be used medically, recreationally, for spiritual reasons, or for research. Some categories of psychoactive drugs may be prescribed by physicians and other healthcare practitioners because of their therapeutic value.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pellotine</span> Chemical compound

Pellotine is an alkaloid found in Lophophora species, in particular L. diffusa. Pellotine is slightly narcotic, and has been used by Native Americans as a constituent of peyote for sacramental purposes.

<i>Pelecyphora aselliformis</i> Species of cactus

Pelecyphora aselliformis is a species of Pelecyphora found in Mexico. Pelecyphora aselliformis is known for its medicinal properties and may have been utilized as a psychoactive in the same way as Lophophora williamsii. It is known as "Peyotillo".

References

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  4. ↑ Other sources, apparently incorrectly, translate the Nahuatl word as "divine messenger". Anderson, Edward F. (2001). The Cactus Family. Pentland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN   978-0-88192-498-5. p. 396.
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  27. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans (2008) [1938]. "The appeal of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) as a medicine". American Ethnography Quasimonthly. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
  28. ↑ "The people who take drugs to see God". BBC News. 21 August 2016.
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  31. ↑ "Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise". The Contemporary Review. LXXIII. 1898.
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  34. ↑ Lumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners (1902), p.358
  35. ↑ Halpern JH, Sherwood AR, Hudson JI, Yurgelun-Todd D, Pope HG Jr. "Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans." Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58(8):624–631.
  36. ↑ Bergman RL (1971). "Navajo peyote use: its apparent safety," Amer J Psychiat 128(6):695–699[51–55].
  37. ↑ Inaba, D.S. & Cohen, W.E. (2004). Uppers, Downers, All Arounders. (pp. 229–230, 232). Oregon: CNS Publications, Inc.
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  40. ↑ K B Nolte and R E Zumwalt. "Fatal peyote ingestion associated with Mallory-Weiss lacerations." West J Med. 1999 Jun; 170(6): 328.
  41. ↑ Nole and Zumwalt 1999 [ full citation needed ]
  42. ↑ Dorrance; Janiger; and Teplitz (1975), "Effect of peyote on human chromosomes: Cytogenic study of the Huichol Indians of northern Mexico." JAMA 234:299–302.
  43. ↑ Catches, Vincent (1991). "Native American Church: The Half-Moon Way". Wíčazo Ša Review. 7 (1): 17–24. doi:10.2307/1409324. JSTOR   1409324.
  44. ↑ Stacy B. Schaefer, Peter T. Furst. People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival. UNM Press, 1997. Pg 52–53
  45. ↑ Beyer, Catharine (2023-11-11). "Why Can the Native American Church Still Use Peyote?". Learn Religions. Retrieved 2023-11-11.
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  50. ↑ James W.H. McCord, Sandra McCord, and C. Suzanne Bailey, Criminal and Procedure for the Paralegal: A Systems Approach, p. 178–179 (4th ed. Delmar Cengage 2012) ISBN   978-1-4354-4016-6
  51. ↑ UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff, v. Robert Lawrence BOYLL, Defendant., Crim. No. 90-207-JB , 774 F.Supp. 133 (D.N.M. 1991)(United States District Court, D. New Mexico1991-09-03).
  52. ↑ "Substance: Peyote, DEA#: 7415, CSA SCH: I, NARC: N, Other names: Cactus which contains mescaline" (PDF).
  53. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20040712040446im_/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/pdf/navrecruit.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]

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