Railroad ecology

Last updated
Train tracks in the United Kingdom Train tracks - geograph.org.uk - 1321798.jpg
Train tracks in the United Kingdom

Railroad ecology or railway ecology is a term used to refer to the study of the ecological community growing along railroad or railway tracks and the effects of railroads on natural ecosystems. Such ecosystems have been studied primarily in Europe. Similar conditions and effects appear also by roads used by vehicles. Railroads along with roads, canals, and power lines are examples of linear infrastructure intrusions.

Contents

Conditions

Railroad beds, like road beds, are designed to drain water away from the tracks, so there is usually a bed of rock and gravel resulting in fast drainage away from the tracks. At the same time, this drainage often accumulates in areas fairly near the tracks where drainage is poor, forming small artificial wetlands. These unnatural conditions combine to form different zones, some in which water is scarce, others in which water is abundant.

Maintenance

Railroad companies routinely clear-cut and/or spray with herbicide any vegetation that grows too close to the tracks. This favors vegetation that is able to respond favorably to clearcutting, and/or resist herbicides.

On overhead electrified railroad lines, clear-cutting must be more extensive, vertically as well as horizontally, in order to prevent vegetation (especially tree limbs) from interfering with the pantographs on a moving train, breaking off and falling on the wires, or simply from arcing in proximity to high voltage transmission cables. The same vegetative selection processes described in the previous paragraph apply, but may additionally favor climbing vines due to the presence of catenary and transmission poles in addition to the wooden communications and signal pole lines which often exist(ed) along nonelectrified lines.

History

Historically, conditions along railroad beds were very different from today. Coal engines used to blanket the area with soot, favoring species adapted to these conditions (some of which only occurred naturally in volcanic areas). Newer engines produced a less remarkable environment, but many of the same plants have remained and adapted to this new environment.

Invasive Species

Railway tracks (like roads and highways) are often colonized by non-native invasive species. In North America, such species include trees such as Ailanthus altissima, Paulownia tomentosa, Siberian Elm, and Norway Maple, and invasive non-woody plants such as Japanese Knotweed and Phragmites. The railway tracks provide corridors along which these species can spread and thrive, even when the surrounding areas might be less hospitable to them. Many invasive species have been known to be propagated by railways, these include: spotted knapweed, South African ragwort, Oxford ragwort, rat, mouse, ants, beetle, spider, and armadillo. [1]

Causes

There are three mechanisms that lead to invasive species being spread by the railway industry: [2]

Railway verges, similarly to road verges, are typically regularly mowed and covered in herbicide by train companies. This creates an environment that is very different from the surrounding habitat, which could be a forest for example. Native species from the surrounding habitat are not adapted to this new habitat type, allowing generalist species and species who favor open environments to take root. [1] These railway verges can extend for multiple kilometers without being interrupted, creating a corridor for species to disperse. Additionally, when constructing a new railway, vegetation is removed, soil is bared, and water is managed, creating ideal conditions for invasive plants to implant. [1]

Impacts

The impacts of invasive species are widespread. They modify communities and ecosystems making them more vulnerable to disruptions such as climate change. They can outcompete native species and cause their extinction. For humans, invasive species have a huge economic cost. [1]  

Management

There are four main management categories to stop invasive species along railways: the do-nothing strategy, the management of the propagule supply, the management of environmental conditions, and the management of the invasive species populations. [1] The do-nothing strategy is, as its name suggests, to not try to act against the invasive species. This strategy can be appropriate when the cost of management is very high or when a native species will likely overtake an invasive species in future successional stages of the railway verge. Managing the propagule supply can be done in many ways, planting or seeding the verge with native plants and using fire management to burn seeds of invasive species are two examples of this method. Changing the environmental conditions to prevent native species from implanting can be done through soil compaction for example. Removing the invasive species can be done by burning, using herbicides or mechanical removal. Removing new patches of the invasive species should be prioritized when this species spreads fast as this new patch can be a new source of dispersal. Creating barriers for the invasive species to stop spreading should be done for species with lower dispersion speeds. [1] Management practices should always take into account native species to not harm them. [1]

Impacts on local wildlife

Reindeer on railway tracks in Sweden forcing the train to slow down. Inlandsbanan Reindeer.jpg
Reindeer on railway tracks in Sweden forcing the train to slow down.

There are four main impacts on wildlife from railroads: wildlife mortality, the barrier effect, habitat fragmentation/loss, and disturbances. [3]

Wildlife mortality

Wildlife-train collisions

Wildlife species from smaller birds and mammals [4] to deer [5] and large mammals such as elephants [6] [7] may be killed in collisions with trains running on railway tracks. Studies on wildlife-train collisions have mostly been focused on moose and bear. [8] [3] [9] These species are large and due to their size, are more likely to cause a financial impact when a train collides with them. [9] They are also considered charismatic megafauna and keystone species in conservation efforts. [8] [9] More research is needed on the effects of railroads on smaller species. [8]  

Other causes of mortality

Rail entrapment, wire strikes and electrocution are some of the other causes of mortality due to railways. [3] [9] Eastern box turtles can enter in between rails at the level crossings and be unable to escape once they are outside of the level crossing zone. [10]

Barriers

Railways and powerlines to supply electrical trains, like other linear infrastructures, divide habitats when built. [11] This prevents species from moving from one side of the railway to the other, either through mortality or barriers, this is known as the barrier effect. These railways also remove habitat in the location where the railway and its verge are built. [11] More railways and high speed railways are being built around the world because they are more environmentally friendly for the transportation of goods and people than planes or road vehicles. [3] These new constructions increase landscape fragmentation and habitat loss which also causes biodiversity loss. [3]

Physical

Some species, such as the eastern box turtle and other types of herpetofauna, are unable to physically cross rails. This poses a barrier for them to move across the landscape from one side of the train tracks to the other.

Behavioural

Pollution due to diesel engines, sound and vibrations can prevent wildlife from crossing train tracks. [3] Species such as the Mongolian gazelle who can physically cross the railway avoid them up to 300 meters away. [3]

Railway attraction

Some species are attracted by the railway to use it for feeding or as a transportation corridor. Omnivorous or granivorous species feed on grain that is spilled on the tracks by trains. Other species will eat vegetation near the train tracks, as this edge habitat usually contains vegetation that is different from the one located inside forests, farther away from the railway. Carcasses of animals previously killed on the railway can also attract scavengers. [8] [3] Caribous have a higher chance of being preyed upon by wolves when located near linear infrastructures, of which railways are a part of. This indicates that wolves are likely using these railways to access prey more easily. [11] [12]

Railway mitigation measures

A dry ledge for small fauna installed in a water culvert in Auneuil. Passage petite faune Auneuil.jpg
A dry ledge for small fauna installed in a water culvert in Auneuil.

There are many different railway mitigation measures, most of them fit into two main categories: either to prevent animals from being on the tracks or reduce the barrier effect. [13]

Measures that allow movement across the railway

Structures already built into the railway infrastructure such as pipe culverts, box culverts, small access roads and bridges to cross rivers or valleys can offer safe passage underneath the railway for wildlife. [13] Culverts can be adapted during their construction or afterwards to better allow wildlife to use them as crossing structures by including dry ledges, modifying the habitat at the entrances, avoiding slopes or steps, etc. [13] Modifying culverts is likely the most economical solution to reduce the barrier effect. [14] Wildlife underpasses and overpasses are also good ways to reduce the barrier effect of railways, but they are associated with a much higher cost of construction. [13] These types of structures mainly help land animals, with birds and bats only being helped by extremely large structures. [13] The rock between two railway sleepers can be excavated to allow small mammals and herpetofauna who are unable to physically cross rails to do so. [3]

Measures that restrict access to the railway

Measures that repel wildlife from the railway are considered the most effective to reduce mortality. [13] They also greatly increase the barrier effect if they are not combined with measures to allow movement across the railway. [13] Exclusion fences are the most cost-effective measure to reduce mortality. They are not effective for species can climb, dig or fly over the fences. [13] They also need to include areas for animals trapped in between the exclusion fences to escape into the surrounding habitat. Poles and trees can mitigate mortality for flying species. [13] Olfactory repellants have mixed results on reducing moose casualties. [15] [13] Sound and light signals can be either stationary or attached to oncoming trains. [13] In the case of roe deer, sound signals make this species run towards the railway track, where the trains cannot avoid the collision. [16] Audio animal calls produced 30 seconds to 3 minutes before the arrival of a train increased the rate and the speed at which wildlife fled, with wildlife not habituating to these sounds. [17]

Other mitigation measures

Reducing train speed at mortality hotspots or during migration periods can help animals and train drivers see each other earlier, leaving more time for the animals to flee. [13] Mowing and reducing vegetation on the verge can also achieve this. [15] [13] This measure can also increase the barrier effect. [13] Feeding stations away from the railway reduces collisions in the case of moose. [15] Electrified overhead wires for electric trains can use similar mitigation measures as those for powerlines. [13] Poles for powerlines should be capped to prevent nesting birds from falling into them and becoming trapped. [18] Selective hunting and trapping near railways can reduce wildlife-train collisions. [13] Construction of rail infrastructure can also be reduced or stopped during critical periods of migration. [11]

Differences between road ecology and railway ecology

Railway ecology is much less studied than road ecology. [8] This could be because railways are typically harder to access than roads or because roadkill is much more visible to the public, while wildlife-train collisions are only visible to train drivers. [3] Trains and railways are very different from road motor vehicles and roads themselves. Trains typically are on a singular track, they cannot swerve to avoid a collision and their capacity to slow down is very limited. [14] Trains only come from one direction, while roads are normally bidirectional. Intervals between vehicles are much longer on railways than on roads. [14] Only a singular train comes at a time, while many vehicles are on the same stretch of road at once, often on multiple lanes. Road traffic occurs more often during the daytime, while train traffic can be higher in nighttime. [14] Trains cause more vibrations due to their weight and the interaction between tracks and wheels. There is a large proportion of electrical trains, leading to lower emissions near tracks than gas vehicles on roads. [14] Trains can be much quieter than road vehicles. The size of the railway and its verge is normally much smaller than the size of a road and its verge. [14] High speed trains can be much faster than road vehicles, and fencing is more common along these high speed train tracks. [14] [3]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moose</span> Mammal belonging to the deer family of ruminants

The moose or elk is the only species in the genus Alces. The moose is the tallest and second-largest land mammal in North America, only falling short of the American buffalo in terms of mass. It is the largest and heaviest extant species of deer. Most adult male moose have distinctive broad, palmate antlers; most other members of the deer family have antlers with a dendritic ("twig-like") configuration. Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. Hunting and other human activities have caused a reduction in the size of the moose's range over time. It has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats. Currently, most moose occur in Canada, Alaska, New England, New York State, Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, Poland, Kazakhstan, and Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife garden</span>

A wildlife garden is an environment created with the purpose to serve as a sustainable haven for surrounding wildlife. Wildlife gardens contain a variety of habitats that cater to native and local plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on, and are meant to sustain locally native flora and fauna. Other names this type of gardening goes by can vary, prominent ones being habitat, ecology, and conservation gardening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roadkill</span> Animals that have died due to vehicular incursions

Roadkill is an animal or animals that have been struck and killed by drivers of motor vehicles. Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) have increasingly been the topic of academic research to understand the causes, and how it can be mitigated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban ecology</span> Scientific study of living organisms

Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in an urban environment. An urban environment refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape. The goal of urban ecology is to achieve a balance between human culture and the natural environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife crossing</span> Structures enabling wildlife to safely cross human-made barriers

Wildlife crossings are structures that allow animals to cross human-made barriers safely. Wildlife crossings may include underpass tunnels or wildlife tunnels, viaducts, and overpasses or green bridges ; amphibian tunnels; fish ladders; canopy bridges ; tunnels and culverts ; and green roofs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat fragmentation</span> Discontinuities in an organisms environment causing population fragmentation.

Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment, and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Island restoration</span>

The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's endemic species, as well as important breeding grounds for seabirds and some marine mammals. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human disturbance and particularly to introduced species, due to their small size. Island groups, such as New Zealand and Hawaii, have undergone substantial extinctions and losses of habitat. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-tailed prairie dog</span> Species of rodent

The black-tailed prairie dog is a rodent of the family Sciuridae found in the Great Plains of North America from about the United States-Canada border to the United States-Mexico border. Unlike some other prairie dogs, these animals do not truly hibernate. The black-tailed prairie dog can be seen above ground in midwinter. A black-tailed prairie dog town in Texas was reported to cover 25,000 sq mi (64,000 km2) and included 400,000,000 individuals. Prior to habitat destruction, the species may have been the most abundant prairie dog in central North America. It was one of two prairie dogs described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the journals and diaries of their expedition.

Sensory ecology is a relatively new field focusing on the information organisms obtain about their environment. It includes questions of what information is obtained, how it is obtained, and why the information is useful to the organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife corridor</span> Connecting wild territories for animals

A wildlife corridor, habitat corridor, or green corridor is an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities or structures. This allows an exchange of individuals between populations, which may help prevent the negative effects of inbreeding, and reduced genetic diversity that often occur within isolated populations. Corridors may also help facilitate the re-establishment of populations that have been reduced or eliminated due to random events. This may potentially moderate some of the worst effects of habitat fragmentation, wherein urbanization can split up habitat areas, causing animals to lose both their natural habitat and the ability to move between regions to access resources. Habitat fragmentation due to human development is an ever-increasing threat to biodiversity, and habitat corridors serve to manage its effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GIS and aquatic science</span> Implementation of Geographic Information System

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has become an integral part of aquatic science and limnology. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the US Geological Survey, US Fish and Wildlife Service as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

<i>Sylvilagus palustris hefneri</i> Subspecies of rabbit

Sylvilagus palustris hefneri, also known commonly as the Lower Keys marsh rabbit, is an endangered subspecies of marsh rabbit in the family Leporidae. The subspecies is named after Playboy founder Hugh Hefner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Riparian-zone restoration</span> Ecological restoration of river banks and floodplains

Riparian-zone restoration is the ecological restoration of riparian-zonehabitats of streams, rivers, springs, lakes, floodplains, and other hydrologic ecologies. A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen terrestrial biomes of the earth; the habitats of plant and animal communities along the margins and river banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by aquatic plants and animals that favor them. Riparian zones are significant in ecology, environmental management, and civil engineering because of their role in soil conservation, their habitat biodiversity, and the influence they have on fauna and aquatic ecosystems, including grassland, woodland, wetland or sub-surface features such as water tables. In some regions the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, or riparian strip are used to characterize a riparian zone.

Road ecology is the study of the ecological effects of roads and highways. These effects may include local effects, such as on noise, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and the wider environmental effects of transport such as habitat fragmentation, ecosystem degradation, and climate change from vehicle emissions.

Located in the southern part of British Columbia, Columbia National Wildlife Area was established to protect its wetlands and as a temporary home for migratory birds travelling to South America. The National Wildlife Area (NWA) is divided into four unit areas: Wilmer, Spillimacheen, Brisco and Harrogate, which are home to many diverse species of animals and plants which are significant in Canada.

Garden waste, or green waste dumping is the act of discarding or depositing garden waste somewhere it does not belong.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Linear infrastructure intrusions</span>

Linear infrastructure intrusions into natural ecosystems are man-made linear infrastructure such as roads and highways, electric power lines, railway lines, canals, pipelines, firebreaks, and fences. These intrusions cause linear opening through the habitat or breakage in landscape connectivity due to infrastructure creation and maintenance, which is known to have multiple ecological effects in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These effects include habitat loss and fragmentation, spread of invasive alien species, desiccation, windthrow, fires, animal injury and mortality, changes in animal behaviour, pollution, microclimate and vegetation changes, loss of ecosystem services, increased pressures from development, tourism, hunting, garbage disposal, and associated human disturbances. These intrusions, considered crucial infrastructure for economic sectors such as transportation, power, and irrigation, may also have negative social impacts on indigenous and rural people through exposure to novel social and market pressures, loss of land and displacement, and iniquitous distribution of costs and benefits from infrastructure projects. The study of the ecological effects of linear infrastructure intrusions has spawning sub-fields of research such as road ecology and railroad ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Road barrier effect</span> The effect that roads and railways have on the movement of wildlife

The barrier effect of roads and highways is a phenomenon usually associated with landscape ecology, referring to the barrier that linear infrastructure like roads or railways place on the movement of animals. Largely viewed as a negative process, the barrier effect has also been found to have several positive effects, particularly with smaller species. To reduce a road or railway's barrier effect, wildlife crossings are regarded as one of the best mitigation options, ideally in combination with wildlife fencing. The barrier effect is closely linked to habitat fragmentation and road ecology.

Many animal migration patterns are still intact in the greater Jackson area due to the large quantity of protected land. Large animals such as elk, mule deer, and pronghorn have separate winter and summer habitats and are moving in the spring and fall. Elk, moose, and other large animals also converge in the low-lying areas around Jackson during the winter months to escape deep snow at higher elevations. All of this movement increases the likelihood of wildlife-vehicle collisions on roads.

A roadkill hotspot or blackspot is an accumulation of roadkill along a given length of roadway with significantly more wildlife-vehicle collisions than expected to occur by chance, based on a normal distribution. Decision-makers can then authorize the construction of roadkill mitigation infrastructure based on roadkill hotspot locations, prioritizing those with the most roadkill in number or those for a particular target species for conservation. Roadkill hotspots vary spatially and temporally, depending on the scale, duration of monitoring, and both the species and season in question. They can be calculated using roadkill survey data; GPS coordinates of roadkill collected by researchers and highway maintenance personnel, or increasingly, civilian-reported data. Additionally, roadkill hotspots can be projected by using a model to ascertain probable locations; models typically use existing wildlife abundance, distribution, and mitigation data combined with landscape variables and climatic data. Models are often used to determine the probable roadkill locations of ecologically sensitive animals or during the planning stages of a new road, it is noted that these locations may not align perfectly with sites of highest animal crossing attempts. Many academics stress the combined value of animal abundance and migration data with roadkill hotspots as a more assured way to ascertain the best locations to construct roadkill mitigation structures.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ascensão, Fernando; Capinha, César (2017), "Aliens on the Move: Transportation Networks and Non-native Species", Railway Ecology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 65–80, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57496-7_5 , ISBN   978-3-319-57495-0, S2CID   90566042 , retrieved 2023-03-29
  2. ↑ Hulme, P. E.; Bacher, S.; Kenis, M.; Klotz, S.; Kühn, I.; Minchin, D.; Nentwig, W.; Olenin, S.; Panov, V.; Pergl, J.; Pyšek, P.; Roques, A.; Sol, D.; Solarz, W.; Vilà, M. (2008). "Grasping at the Routes of Biological Invasions: A Framework for Integrating Pathways into Policy". Journal of Applied Ecology. 45 (2): 403–414. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01442.x . ISSN   0021-8901. JSTOR   20143990.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Dorsey, Benjamin; Olsson, Mattias; Rew, Lisa J. (2015-04-24), "Ecological Effects of Railways on Wildlife", Handbook of Road Ecology, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 219–227, doi:10.1002/9781118568170.ch26, ISBN   9781118568187 , retrieved 2023-03-29
  4. ↑ Kušta, T., Ježek, M., & Keken, Z. (2011) Mortality of large mammals on railway lines. Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica42: 12–18.
  5. ↑ Ando, Chieko (2003-01-01). "The relationship between deer-train collisions and daily activity of the sika deer, Cervus nippon". Mammal Study. 28 (2): 135–143. doi: 10.3106/mammalstudy.28.135 .
  6. ↑ Dasgupta, Shreya; Ghosh, Asish K. (2015-01-02). "Elephant–Railway Conflict in a Biodiversity Hotspot: Determinants and Perceptions of the Conflict in Northern West Bengal, India". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 20 (1): 81–94. doi:10.1080/10871209.2014.937017. ISSN   1087-1209. S2CID   143882212.
  7. ↑ Roy, M., Baskaran, N., & Sukumar, R. 2009. The death of jumbos on railway lines in Northern West Bengal. Gajah31: 36–39.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Barrientos, Rafael; Ascensão, Fernando; Beja, Pedro; Pereira, Henrique M.; Borda-de-Água, Luís (2019-01-04). "Railway ecology vs. road ecology: similarities and differences". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 65 (1). doi:10.1007/s10344-018-1248-0. ISSN   1612-4642. S2CID   254197025.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Santos, Sara M.; Carvalho, Filipe; Mira, António (2017), "Current Knowledge on Wildlife Mortality in Railways", Railway Ecology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 11–22, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57496-7_2 , ISBN   978-3-319-57495-0 , retrieved 2023-03-31
  10. ↑ Kornilev, Yurii V.; Price, Steven J.; Dorcas, Michael E. (2006). "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Responses of Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina) When Trapped Between Railroad Tracks" (PDF). Herpetological Review. 37 (2): 145–148.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Barrientos, Rafael; Borda-de-Água, Luís (2017), "Railways as Barriers for Wildlife: Current Knowledge", Railway Ecology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 43–64, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57496-7_4 , ISBN   978-3-319-57495-0, S2CID   116778941 , retrieved 2023-03-31
  12. ↑ James, Adam R. C.; Stuart-Smith, A. Kari (January 2000). "Distribution of Caribou and Wolves in Relation to Linear Corridors". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 64 (1): 154. doi:10.2307/3802985. ISSN   0022-541X. JSTOR   3802985.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Carvalho, Filipe; Santos, Sara M.; Mira, António; Lourenço, Rui (2017), Borda-de-Água, Luís; Barrientos, Rafael; Beja, Pedro; Pereira, Henrique Miguel (eds.), "Methods to Monitor and Mitigate Wildlife Mortality in Railways", Railway Ecology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 23–42, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57496-7_3 , ISBN   978-3-319-57495-0
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Borda-de-Água, Luís; Barrientos, Rafael; Beja, Pedro; Pereira, Henrique M. (2017), Railway Ecology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 3–9, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57496-7_1 , ISBN   978-3-319-57495-0 , retrieved 2023-04-06
  15. 1 2 3 ANDREASSEN, HARRY P.; GUNDERSEN, HEGE; STORAAS, TORSTEIN (July 2005). "THE EFFECT OF SCENT-MARKING, FOREST CLEARING, AND SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING ON MOOSE–TRAIN COLLISIONS". Journal of Wildlife Management. 69 (3): 1125–1132. doi:10.2193/0022-541x(2005)069[1125:teosfc]2.0.co;2. ISSN   0022-541X. S2CID   85724393.
  16. ↑ Bhardwaj, Manisha; Olsson, Mattias; Håkansson, Emma; Söderström, Pär; Seiler, Andreas (July 2022). "Ungulates and trains – Factors influencing flight responses and detectability". Journal of Environmental Management. 313: 114992. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114992 . ISSN   0301-4797. PMID   35427861. S2CID   248138835.
  17. ↑ Babińska-Werka, Joanna; Krauze-Gryz, Dagny; Wasilewski, Michał; Jasińska, Karolina (July 2015). "Effectiveness of an acoustic wildlife warning device using natural calls to reduce the risk of train collisions with animals". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 38: 6–14. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2015.04.021.
  18. ↑ Malo, Juan E.; García de la Morena, Eladio L.; Hervás, Israel; Mata, Cristina; Herranz, Jesús (2016-06-10). "Uncapped tubular poles along high-speed railway lines act as pitfall traps for cavity nesting birds". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 62 (4): 483–489. doi:10.1007/s10344-016-1025-x. ISSN   1612-4642. S2CID   254198419.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.