Tomatillo

Last updated

Tomatillo
Tomatillo.jpg
Tomatillos
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Physalis
Species:
P. philadelphica
Binomial name
Physalis philadelphica
Lam. (1786)
Synonyms

Physalis ixocarpaBrot.

Physalis ixocarpa - MHNT Physalis ixocarpa MHNT.BOT.2008.1.52.jpg
Physalis ixocarpa – MHNT

The tomatillo (Physalis philadelphica and Physalis ixocarpa), also known as the Mexican husk tomato, is a plant of the nightshade family bearing small, spherical, and green or green-purple fruit of the same name. [1] Tomatillos originated in Mexico and were cultivated in the pre-Columbian era. [2] A staple of Mexican cuisine, they are eaten raw and cooked in a variety of dishes, particularly salsa verde. The tomatillo is a perennial plant but is generally grown for agriculture each year as if it were an annual.

Contents

Names

The tomatillo (from Nahuatl, tomatl ) [3] is also known as husk tomato, [4] Mexican groundcherry, [5] large-flowered tomatillo, [6] or Mexican husk tomato. [1] Some of these names, however, can also refer to other species in the genus Physalis . [3] Other names are Mexican green tomato and miltomate.

In Spanish, it is called tomate de cáscara (husk tomato), tomate de fresadilla (little strawberry tomato), tomate milpero (field tomato), tomate verde (green tomato), tomatillo (Mexico; this term means "little tomato" elsewhere), miltomate (Mexico, Guatemala), farolito (little lantern), or simply tomate (in which case the tomato is called jitomate from Nahuatl xitomatl). [1]

The tomatillo genus name Physalis is from New Latin physalis, coined by Linnaeus from Ancient Greek φυσαλλίς (physallís, "bladder, wind instrument"), itself from φυσιόω (physióō, "to puff up, blow up"), φυσώ (physṓ).[ citation needed ]

Ixocarpa means "slimey fruit", referencing a sticky or slimey coat often on a Tomatillo before it ruptures from the calyx. [7]

Distribution

Tomatillos are native to Central America and Mexico, having a wild growth range from Mexico to Costa Rica. [1] [8] [9] [10] The plant is grown mostly in the Mexican states of Hidalgo and Morelos, and in the highlands of Guatemala [1] where it is known as miltomate. In the United States, tomatillos have been cultivated since 1863, with one dubbed "jamberry" in 1945 and others with the names "Mayan husk tomato" and "jumbo husk tomato". [3] [1] Further distribution occurred in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Florida. [1] By the middle of the 20th century, the plant was further exported to India, Australia, South Africa, and Kenya. [1]

The wild tomatillo and related plants are found everywhere in the Americas except in the far north, with the highest diversity in Mexico. In 2017, scientists reported on their discovery and analysis of Physalis infinemundi , a fossil Physalis found in the Patagonian region of Argentina, dated to 52 million years BP. The finding has pushed back the earliest appearance of the Solanaceae plant family and the Physalis genus of which the tomatillo is a part. [11]

Cultivation

History

Purple tomatillos (Physalis ixocarpa) Physalis ixocarpa.JPG
Purple tomatillos (Physalis ixocarpa)
Green tomatillos (Physalis philadelphica) Tomatillo 01 cropped.jpg
Green tomatillos (Physalis philadelphica)

Tomatillos were domesticated in Mexico before the coming of Europeans and played an important part in the culture of the Maya and the Aztecs, more important than the tomato. [3] The specific name philadelphica dates to the 18th century. [3] [ failed verification ]

Production

There is limited information about tomatillo production, [12] even though tomatillos are distributed and grown worldwide as a home-grown garden plant. Tomatillos are mainly cultivated in outdoor fields in Mexico and Guatemala on a large scale. Smaller crops are planted in many parts of the United States. [13] In Mexico, tomatillos are planted within a wide range of altitudes. [12]

Soil and climate requirements

In general, tomatillo plants are tolerant to many different soil conditions. However, they do best in well-drained, sandy, fertile soil conditions with a pH between 5.5 and 7.3. [14] Tomatillo plants are cold sensitive. [15] They grow best at 25 to 32 °C (77 to 90 °F). Below 16 °C (61 °F), growth is very poor. [13] Tomatillo plants prefer full sun exposure and warm locations. [16]

Seedbed requirement and sowing

Transplanting is the most common practice for planting tomatillo plants. [13] Transplants are produced in greenhouses or transplant beds. [17] Germination occurs at 20 to 27 °C (68 to 81 °F). [16] Transplanting occurs 6 to 8 weeks after seeding and when the risk of frost is past. Transplants produced indoors need to harden off in a warm, sunny place for a few days before being planted outside. [15] Direct outdoor seeding can only be done if no frost risk exists and soil temperature is higher than 15 °C (59 °F). Direct outdoor seeding leads to the shortening of the vegetation period. [15] Due to its branching growing pattern, a single plant requires sufficient growing space. Tomatillos are typically grown in rows 0.7 to 1.6 m (2.3 to 5.2 ft) apart. [13] Although tomatillo is a perennial plant, overwintering is difficult, so it is normally cultivated as an annual plant. [16]

Fertilization and field management

Tomatillo plants can reach heights of 1.5 to 2 meters (4.9 to 6.6 ft).[ citation needed ] Due to their rapid and branching growth, it is recommended to stake them. Staking also facilitates later harvesting and prevents the fruit from touching the ground, which reduces damage to fruit and husk. [17] Staking can also reduce disease and slug damage. [13] Fertilization is recommended at a moderate level. An application of 40–90 kg/ha (36–80 lb/acre) of phosphorus is common. Other nutrients and fertilizers (N/ K) may be required depending on soil type and irrigation. [13] For non-commercial production, regular fertilization is recommended. Although tomatillo plants become more drought-tolerant as they age, regular watering is required. [13] Tomatillo plants require 25–38 mm (1.0–1.5 in) of water per week. [15] Water can come from rainfall or irrigation. Irrigation can be managed by drip, sprinkler, furrow, or watering can. [13] Irrigation frequency depends on weather and the crop's growth stage, ranging from once or twice a week to daily during hot weather. [13] Weeds are a serious challenge in tomatillo production and are especially important during the first few weeks. Plastic and organic mulches help to control weeds effectively. [15] Applications of plastic mulches also help to restrict soil water evaporation and modify microclimate, [12] thereby affecting tomatillo growth and yield. [12]

Harvest and postharvest treatment

Tomatillos are harvested when the fruits fill the calyx. [12] This state is normally achieved 65 to 100 days after transplanting. [16] Fruit production continues for 1 to 2 months or until the first frost. Harvesting occurs regularly, typically every day, and is done by hand. A plant produces 60 to 200 fruits within a single growing season, with an average yield of about 9 short tons per acre (20 t/ha). [14] Tomatillos can be stored for up to three weeks in a cold and humid environment. [13]

Culinary uses

Tomatillos can be harvested at different stages of ripeness. For salsa verde , harvesting may be done early when the fruit is sour with a light flavor. Tomatillos can be picked later when the fruits are seedier for a sweeter taste. [18] Tomatillos have diverse uses in stews, soups, salads, curries, stirfries, baking, cooking with meats, marmalade, and desserts. [1]

Tomatillos are a key ingredient in fresh and cooked Mexican and Central-American green sauces. The green color and tart flavor are the main culinary contributions of the fruit. Purple and red-ripening cultivars often have a slight sweetness, unlike the green- and yellow-ripening cultivars, so they generally are used in jams and preserves. Like their close relative, the Cape gooseberry, tomatillos have a high pectin content. Another characteristic is that they tend to have a varying degree of a sappy, sticky coating, mostly when used on the green side out of the husk.

Ripe tomatillos keep refrigerated for about two weeks. They keep longer with the husks removed and the fruit refrigerated in sealed plastic bags. [19] They may also be frozen whole or sliced.

Tomatillos can also be dried to enhance the sweetness of the fruit in a way similar to dried cranberries, with a hint of tomato flavor. [20] The tomatillo flavor is used in fusion cuisines for blending flavors from Latin American dishes with those of Europe and North America. [21]

Botany

Description

P. ixocarpa is often confused with P. philadelphica due to morphological similarities and the fact that neither species have had a clear type designation. Physalis ixocarpa and Physalis philadelphica have blue anthers that twist after opening, a yellow corolla with five blue-tinged spots or smudges, and a 10-ribbed calyx filled or burst by the berry. The two species differ in flower size and stigma type. [22]

P. philadelphica grow up to 15 to 60 cm (5.9 to 23.6 in) and have few hairs on the stem. The leaves have acute and irregularly separated dents on the side. [23] They are typically about one meter (3.3 ft) in height, and can be either compact and upright or prostrate with a wider, less dense canopy. The leaves are typically serrated and can be either smooth or pubescent.

Classification

The tomatillo is a member of the genus Physalis , erected by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck described the tomatillo under the name Physlis philadelphica in 1786. Other species, such as P. aeuata and P. violacea were described later. The tomatillo is also often classified as P. ixocarpa Brot. [24] However, P. philadelphica is the most important species economically. [25] The nomenclature for Physalis changed since the 1950s. P. philadelphica was at one time classified as a variety of P. ixocarpa. Later, the classification of P. ixocarpa was revised under the species of P. philadelphica. Today, the name P. ixocarpa is commonly used for the domestic plant and P. philadelphica for the wild one.[ citation needed ]

Tomatillo plant with buds, pubescent stem and serrated leaves noticeable Tomatillo plant.jpg
Tomatillo plant with buds, pubescent stem and serrated leaves noticeable

Flower

Flowers come in several colors: white, light green, bright yellow, and sometimes purple. Flowers may or may not have purple spots toward the center of the corolla. The anthers are typically dark purple to pale blue. Tomatillo plants are highly self-incompatible, and two or more plants are needed for proper pollination. Thus, isolated tomatillo plants rarely set fruit. [26]

Fruit

The tomatillo fruit is surrounded by an inedible, paper-like husk formed from the calyx. As the fruit matures, it fills the husk and can split it open by harvest time. The husk turns brown, and the fruit can be ripe in several colors, including yellow, green, or even purple. The freshness and greenness of the husk are quality criteria.

Flower types:

Varieties

There are several varieties of tomatillos, with differences in tastes, traits, and ripening colors. [1] [27] [28] Some cultivars include Amarylla, Gigante, Green Husk, Mexican, Pineapple, Purple de Milpa, Rio Grande Verde, and Yellow.

Genetic

Self-incompatibility trait

Although self-compatibility is common among wild populations, tomatillos carry self-incompatible traits. The plant, i.e., the fertile hermaphrodite, is not able to produce zygotes after self-pollination occurs. [29] This limits the ability to improve tomatillo production regarding the seed quality and the production of varieties.

The self-compatibility gene is situated in the chromosomes of the tomatillo and is not inherited through cytoplasm. Only heterozygous plants can be self-compatible as the trait is controlled by a dominant gene. [29] Tomatillo can thus produce seeds through self-pollination due to the involvement of self-compatibility traits, but the germination viability is different throughout the produced seeds. This suggests that not only incompatible pollen is involved but also inviability at the seedling stage. [25] A study in 2022 using a commercial cultivar found that it was self-compatible and demonstrated incompatibility only in some of the inter-specific hybrid pollinations that were attempted. [30]

Diseases

Tomatillo is generally a resistant crop as long as its climatic requirements are met. However, as with all crops, mass production brings exposure to pests and diseases. As of 2017, two diseases affecting tomatillos have been documented, namely tomato yellow leaf curl virus and turnip mosaic virus. Symptoms of tomato yellow leaf curl virus, including chlorotic margins and interveinal yellowing, were found in several tomato and tomatillo crops in Mexico and Guatemala in 2006. [31] After laboratory tests, the virus was confirmed. Symptomatic plants were associated with the presence of whiteflies, which were likely the cause of this outbreak. [31]

Turnip mosaic virus was discovered in several tomatillo crops in California in 2011, rendering 2% of commercially grown tomatillo plants unmarketable, with severe stunting and leaf distortion. [32] The green peach aphid is a common pest in California, and since it readily transmits the turnip mosaic virus, this could be a threat to tomatillo production in California. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Passiflora edulis</i> Species of flowering plant in the passion flower family Passifloraceae

Passiflora edulis, commonly known as passion fruit, is a vine species of passion flower native to southern Brazil and Peru. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, juicy interior filled with numerous seeds. The fruit is both eaten and juiced, with the juice often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma.

<i>Physalis</i> Genus of flowering plants

Physalis is a genus of approximately 75 to 90 flowering plants in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which are native to the Americas and Australasia. At least 46 species are endemic to Mexico. Cultivated and weedy species have been introduced worldwide. A defining feature of Physalis is a large, papery husk derived from the calyx, which partly or fully encloses the fruit. Many species bear edible fruit, and some species are cultivated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamarillo</span> Species of plant

The tamarillo is a small tree or shrub in the flowering plant family Solanaceae. It is best known as the species that bears the tamarillo, an egg-shaped edible fruit. It is also known as the tree tomato, tomate de árbol, tomate andino, tomate serrano, blood fruit, poor man's tomatoe, tomate de yuca, tomate de españa, sachatomate, berenjena, chilto and tamamoro in South America, tyamtar, rambheda or rukh tamatar in Nepal, and terong Belanda in Indonesia. It is popular globally, especially in Peru, Colombia, New Zealand, Ecuador, Nepal, Rwanda, Burundi, Australia, Bhutan and the United States.

<i>Physalis peruviana</i> Species of cultivated South American fruit

Physalis peruviana is a species of plant in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) native to Chile and Peru. Within that region, it is called aguaymanto, uvilla or uchuva, in addition to numerous indigenous and regional names. In English, its common names include Cape gooseberry, goldenberry and Peruvian groundcherry.

<i>Capsicum annuum</i> Species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae

Capsicum annuum is a fruiting plant from the family Solanaceae (nightshades), within the genus Capsicum which is native to the northern regions of South America and to southwestern North America. The plant produces berries of many colors including red, green, and yellow, often with pungent taste. It also has many varieties and common names including paprika, chili pepper, jalapeño, cayenne, bell pepper, and many more with over 200 variations within the species. It is also one of the oldest cultivated crops, with domestication dating back to around 6,000 years ago in regions of Mexico. The genus Capsicum has over 30 species but Capsicum annuum is the primary species in its genus, as it has been widely cultivated for human consumption for a substantial amount of time and has spread across the world. This species has many uses in culinary applications, medicine, self defense, and can even be ornamental.

<i>Physalis angulata</i> Species of flowering plant

Physalis angulata is an erect herbaceous annual plant belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its leaves are dark green and roughly oval, often with tooth shapes around the edge. The flowers are five-sided and pale yellow; the yellow-orange fruits are borne inside a balloon-like calyx. The exact native range is uncertain. The species may be naturally endemic to Australia or the Americas or the native range may encompass both the Americas and Australia. It is now widely distributed and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

<i>Solanum muricatum</i> Species of plant

Solanum muricatum is a species of evergreen shrub native to South America and grown for its sweet edible fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable</span> Edible plant or part of a plant, involved in cooking

Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. An alternative definition of the term is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains, but include savoury fruits such as tomatoes and courgettes, flowers such as broccoli, and seeds such as pulses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomato</span> Edible berry

The tomato is the edible berry of the plant Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato derives. Its domestication and use as a cultivated food may have originated with the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Aztecs used tomatoes in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe, in a widespread transfer of plants known as the Columbian exchange. From there, the tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during the 16th century.

<i>Physalis heterophylla</i> Species of flowering plant

Physalis heterophylla, colloquial name clammy groundcherry, is species of herbaceous plant in the family Solanaceae. It is native to North America, occurring primarily in the eastern United States and Canada. It is known to occur in all contiguous states except for Nevada and California. It is found mainly in habitats such as dry or mesic prairies, gravel hills and rises, sandy or rocky soils, and waste places such as roadsides.

<i>Physalis longifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Physalis longifolia, known by the common names common groundcherry, longleaf groundcherry, and wild tomatillo, is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is native to North America, where it is native to eastern Canada, much of the continental United States, and northern Mexico. It has also been noted as an introduced species in other regions, including parts of the United States outside its native range. In some areas, such as California, it is an occasional noxious weed.

<i>Physalis pubescens</i> Species of fruit and plant

Physalis pubescens is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family known by many common names, including husk tomato, low ground-cherry and hairy groundcherry in English, and muyaca and capulí in Spanish. It is native from Brazil, but also found in southern half of the United States, Mexico, Central and much of South America. It can be found elsewhere as an introduced species and sometimes a weed. It can grow in many types of habitat, including disturbed areas. This is an annual herb producing a glandular, densely hairy stem up to about 60 cm (24 in) in maximum height from a taproot. The oval or heart-shaped leaves are 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) long and have smooth or toothed edges. The flowers blooming from the leaf axils are bell-shaped and about a centimeter long. They are yellow with five dark spots in the throats, and have five stamens tipped with blue anthers. The five-lobed calyx of sepals at the base of the flower enlarges as the fruit develops, becoming an inflated, ribbed, lanternlike structure 2–4 cm (0.79–1.57 in) long which contains the berry.

Solanum vestissimum is a subtropical perennial plant from northwestern South America. Also known within its native range as toronjo, tumo, or coquina melón, S. vestissimum is a large semi-woody plant or shrub, up to 8 meters in height, though usually much smaller. The very large heart-shaped leaves are lined with spines along the top and bottom of the dorsal vein, similar to the naranjilla or pseudolulo. The leaves and stems of the plant are otherwise covered in short, felt-like hairs.

<i>Solanum diphyllum</i> Species of flowering plant

Solanum diphyllum, commonly known as the twoleaf nightshade, is a species of nightshade native to the Americas. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant for its clusters of dark green round fruits that turn a bright yellow when ripe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Celebrity tomato</span> Tomato cultivar

The Celebrity tomato cultivar is a hybrid (biology) that produces long fruit-bearing stems holding 20 or more very plump, robust tomatoes. Fruits weigh approximately 8 oz., and are 4 inches across. Plants need caging or staking, and produce fruit throughout the growing season. The celebrity tomato is a cultivar of the species Solanum lycopersicum. It is a crossbreed of the common tomato that is widely used for various culinary purposes. This tomato is of great size and is known to be resistant to most tomato diseases such as Fusarium wilt, Verticillium wilt, Tobacco mosaic virus and Root-knot nematode due to its hybrid nature. Celebrity tomatoes are highly adaptive to harsh environments and can grow in a wide range of places including dry, humid and wet regions. They are resistant to cracking and splitting which usually occurs when there is an excess of water and sugar movement in the fruits. Therefore, causing the tomato skin to grow at a slower rate compared to the expansion of the fruit. They can survive in harsh uneven rainfall. However, they are highly susceptible to colder environments and are at a higher risk of dying in regions with short growing seasons. The plants can grow up to 5 feet in height with bright red medium-sized fruits. The plants are generally very thick and grow in clusters. The tomato fruits are mostly used in the making of various salsas, salads, juices and canned food.

<i>Physalis virginiana</i> Species of flowering plant

Physalis virginiana, the Virginia groundcherry, is a rhizomatous perennial with a deeply buried stem base. It is found mostly in eastern North America as far west as Wyoming.

Physalis caudella, the southwestern groundcherry or tomatillo chiquito, is a plant in the family Solanaceae, native to Arizona, Sonora and Chihuahua. The purple-green fruits are small but edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solanaceae</span> Family of flowering plants that includes tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco

The Solanaceae, or the nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent alkaloids, and some are highly toxic, but many—including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell and chili peppers—are used as food. The family belongs to the order Solanales, in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of habitats, morphology and ecology.

<i>Lema daturaphila</i> Species of beetle

Lema daturaphila, commonly known as the three-lined potato beetle, is a species of beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is originally from Central and North America, but has spread elsewhere.

<i>Physalis pruinosa</i> Species of flowering plant

Physalis pruinosa is a plant in the genus Physalis in the nightshade family Solanaceae, often referred to as ground cherry or husk tomato. It is a native species in a range extending from northern Mexico through Central America. The plant has a low, spreading habit, and fruits develop in a papery husk, as is characteristic of the genus. While most parts of the plant are toxic to humans due to the presence of solanine and solanidine, the fruit becomes edible once it has ripened to yellow. The fruit's flavor is similar in some respects to that of a ripe tomatillo, but notably has a strong flavor of pineapple as well, a fact reflected in the name of a common commercial variety, "Cossack Pineapple". The ripe fruit of Physalis pruinosa var. argentinaJ. M. Toledo & Barboza is a food source for the Pilagá ethnic group.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Morton, Julia F (1987). Mexican husk tomato, Physalis ixocarpa Brot., Physalis aequata Jacq. In: Fruits of Warm Climates. New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN. pp. 434–37. ISBN   978-0-9610184-1-2.
  2. ↑ Plata, Edith Metcalfe de (1984). Mexican Vegetarian Cooking. Inner Traditions/Bear. p. 17. ISBN   978-0-89281-341-4.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Small, Ernest (2011). Top 100 Exotic Food Plants. CRC Press. pp. 117–20. ISBN   978-1-4398-5688-8.
  4. ↑ Valladolid, Marcela (2010). Fresh Mexico: 100 Simple Recipes for True Mexican Flavor. Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony. p. 249. ISBN   978-0-307-88553-1.
  5. ↑ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Physalis philadelphica". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  6. ↑ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  7. ↑ "ixo-". www.mushroomthejournal.com. Retrieved 2024-01-07.
  8. ↑ "Withanolides from dietary tomatillo suppress HT1080 cancer cell growth by targeting mutant IDH1".
  9. ↑ "Tomatillo: A Potential Vegetable Crop for Louisiana".
  10. ↑ Jiménez-Santana et al., 2012
  11. ↑ Wilf, Peter; Carvalho, Mónica R.; Gandolfo, María A.; Cúneo, N. Rubén (2017). "Eocene lantern fruits from Gondwanan Patagonia and the early origins of Solanaceae". Science. 355 (6320): 71–75. Bibcode:2017Sci...355...71W. doi:10.1126/science.aag2737. PMID   28059765. S2CID   206651318.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Diaz-Perez J., Phatak S.C., Giddings D., Bertrand D., Mills H.A. (2015). "Root zone temperature, plant growth and fruit yield of tomatillo as affected by plastic film mulch". HortScience. 40 (5): 1312–1319. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.40.5.1312 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Smith R., Jimenez M., Cantwell M. (1999). "Tomatillo production in California" (PDF). University of California - Agriculture and Natural Resources.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. 1 2 Masabni J (2016). Easy gardening for Texas. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN   978-0972104975.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Eldon E., Cynthia H., Richard J. (2003). "Tomatillos". Iowa State University - Extension Store.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. 1 2 3 4 "Tomatillos". Mein schöner Garten.
  17. 1 2 "Tomatillo". Speciality cropportunity. 2012.
  18. ↑ Johansen, Kristen (15 July 2011). "Tomatillos: Fruits with benefits". The Roanoke Times. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
  19. ↑ Carter, Noelle; Deane, Donna (14 May 2008). "Tomatillo: a green sourpuss with a sweet side". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 3 August 2009.
  20. ↑ Kindscher, K.; Timmermann, B. N.; Zhang, H.; Gollapudi, R.; Corbett, S.; Samadi, A.; Cohen, M. (2012). "Wild tomatillos (Physalis species) as food and medicine". Planta Medica. 78 (11): IL32. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1320219.
  21. ↑ McGorrin, R. J.; Gimelfarb, L. (1998). "Comparison of flavor components in fresh and cooked tomatillo with red plum tomato". Developments in Food Science. 40: 295–313. doi:10.1016/S0167-4501(98)80055-1. ISBN   9780444825902.
  22. ↑ Pretz, Chelsea; Deanna, Rocío (February 2020). "Typifications and nomenclatural notes in Physalis (Solanaceae) from the United States". Taxon. 69 (1): 170–192. doi:10.1002/tax.12159. ISSN   0040-0262. S2CID   214125933.
  23. ↑ Montes Hernández, S; Aguirre Rivera, J. R. (1994). "Plant Production and Protection Series". In Hernándo Bermejo, J. E.; León, J. (eds.). Neglected Crops, 1492 from a Different Perspective. Vol. 26. Rome: FAO. pp. 117–122. ISSN   0259-2525. Archived from the original on 2014-10-11. Retrieved 2017-11-28.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ Bukun, Bekir; Uygur, F. Nezihi; Uygur, Sibel; Turkmen, Necattin; Duzenli, Atabay (2014-05-16). "A New Record for the Flora of Turkey: Physalis philadelphica Lam. var. immaculata Waterf. (Solanaceae)". Turkish Journal of Botany (in Turkish). 26 (5) (published 2002): 405–407. ISSN   1300-008X.
  25. 1 2 Simpson, J.; Montes-Hernandez, S.; Gutierrez-Campos, R.; Assad-Garcia, N.; Herrera-Estrella, L. (1995). "Genetic Transformation in Physalis Species (Tomatillo)". Plant Protoplasts and Genetic Engineering VI. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry. Vol. 34. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 228–239. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-57840-3_21. ISBN   9783642633744.
  26. ↑ Franklin-Tong, Vernonica E., ed. (2008). Self-Incompatibility in Flowering Plants: Evolution, Diversity and Mechanisms. Springer. ISBN   978-3-540-68485-5.
  27. ↑ "Tomato and tomatillo varieties". University of Idaho Extension. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  28. ↑ D.N. Moriconi; M.C. Rush; H. Flores (1990). "Tomatillo: A Potential Vegetable Crop for Louisiana; In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops". Timber Press and New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University. pp. 407–413. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  29. 1 2 Mulato-Brito, Juan; Peña-Lomelí, Aureliano; Sahagún-Castellanos, Jaime; Villanueva-Verduzco, Clemente; López-Reynoso, José de Jesús (2007-01-01). "Self-Compatibility Inheritance in Tomatillo (Physalis Ixocarpa Brot.)". Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin. 67 (–1): 17–24. doi: 10.2478/v10032-007-0026-4 . ISSN   1898-7761.
  30. ↑ Junior, André Dutra Silva; Zeist, André Ricardo; da Silva, Daniel Fernandes; de Souza Leal, Murilo Henrique; Oliveira, Guilherme José Almeida; de Oliveira, Joana Nascimento Merces; Youssef, Khamis; Da Rocha Toroco, Bruno (2022-05-18). "Reproductive biology and hybridization of Physalis L. species". Brazilian Journal of Botany. 45 (3): 1037–1045. doi:10.1007/s40415-022-00811-6. ISSN   1806-9959. S2CID   248902866.
  31. 1 2 Salati, R.; Shorey, M.; Briggs, A.; Calderon, J.; Rojas, M. R.; Chen, L. F.; Gilbertson, R. L.; Palmieri, M. (2010-03-04). "First Report of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus Infecting Tomato, Tomatillo, and Peppers in Guatemala". Plant Disease. 94 (4): 482. doi:10.1094/PDIS-94-4-0482C. ISSN   0191-2917. PMID   30754504.
  32. 1 2 Liu, H.-Y.; Koike, S. T.; Xu, D.; Li, R. (2011-11-02). "First Report of Turnip mosaic virus in Tomatillo (Physalis philadelphica) in California". Plant Disease. 96 (2): 296. doi:10.1094/PDIS-09-11-0751. ISSN   0191-2917. PMID   30731815.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.