Despite the United States never becoming an official member of the League of Nations, American individuals and organizations interacted with the League throughout its existence.
The American President, Woodrow Wilson, was involved in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 at the conclusion of World War I. At this conference, Wilson played a key role along with other powers in fashioning the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. His ideas surrounding a postwar world order were earlier expressed in his Fourteen Points, and these were discussed in the series of discussions held. One of the key features of the agreement that Wilson campaigned for was the establishment of an international body which would work to maintain the political freedom and independence of nations all around the world. [1] This organization developed into the League of Nations, however, the American nation ultimately decided against becoming a formal member. [2]
Despite Woodrow Wilson chairing the committee which drafted the Treaty of Versailles Covenant, America voted against becoming official members of the League of Nations in 1919. [3] [4] Historians have explored a variety of reasons as to why exactly the Senate refused to approve the Treaty of Versailles, naming the hostility between President Wilson and Republican senator, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Wilson's declining health as key explanations. [5] Jacobsen states that "the rejection also should be seen in the context of the long-standing American ambivalence about involvement in international politics." [3] Furthermore, the United States would never become a member of the League of Nations, as a two-thirds majority was never granted in the Senate. [5] As a result, the dynamic between members of the League, and between the US and these nations was influenced. Henig explains this by suggesting that the absence of the United States as an official member of the League "widened the gulf between Britain and France." [6]
Despite the United States' lack of formal membership, the United States was involved in various League related projects and organizations. [4] [7] [8] They were involved in various sectors:
American citizens were employed at the secretariat; American academics contributed to League-sponsored research projects; American philanthropies financially supported these same economic projects, and American representatives from the banking and financial communities sat on its economic and financial committees. [9]
A notable American organization involved with the League of Nations was the Rockefeller Foundation, as many of its goals and aspirations were similar to those of the League. It was involved in the international economic section of the League and made considerable contributions to it during the 1930s. [10]
The United States was involved with the League of Nations in resolving the Manchurian Crisis. [11]
Debates surrounding the United States' policy of isolationism in international affairs during the 1920s and 1930s have been held since contemporary politicians were making these decisions. However, according to Thompson, it was the Manchurian Crisis of 1931-1932 that made Secretary of State, Henry L. Stimson support the position that isolationism was no longer an option for the United States. [12] Despite the American emphasize on their individuality from the League of Nations, a commission of inquiry sent to Japan in February 1932 was representative of the great powers, including the United States. [13] They had agreed to work collaboratively with the League to bring an end to the situation, however, they would "only operate under the Washington agreements of 1922 and the Kellogg-Briand Pact." [14]
The American absence in the League of Nations did not prevent the nation from becoming an official member of the United Nations, formed at the conclusion of the Second World War. The United States was one of five permanent members of the Supreme Council, with the other four countries the USSR, France, Nationalist China, and Britain. [15] The proposed task of this body was "to work together to secure the maintenance of international peace and security." [15]
The membership of the United States and the USSR in the United Nations is a key difference between the post-World War II international organization and the League of Nations. According to Henig, the official involvement of the United States "gave the United Nations a global reach which the League lacked, symbolised by the fact that its headquarters was established in New York." [16]
A League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations. These were of the nature of both a treaty and a constitution, which contained minority rights clauses that provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by the Permanent Court of International Justice.
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International Relations (IR) are the interactions among sovereign states. The scientific study of those interactions is called international studies, international politics, or international affairs. In a broader sense, it concerns all activities among states—such as war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign policy—as well as relations with and among other international actors, such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), international legal bodies, and multinational corporations (MNCs). There are several schools of thought within IR, of which the most prominent are realism, liberalism, and constructivism.
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Paul Samuel Reinsch, was an American political scientist and diplomat. He played an influential role in developing the field of international relations.
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An international organization, also known as an intergovernmental organization or an international institution, is an organization that is established by a treaty, or is an instrument governed by international law and possessing its own legal personality, such as the United Nations, the World Health Organization, Save the Children International, and NATO. International organizations are composed of primarily member states, but may also include other entities, such as other international organizations, firms, and nongovernmental organizations. Additionally, entities may hold observer status. An alternative definition is that an international organization is a stable set of norms and rules meant to govern the behavior of states and other actors in the international system.
Richard Abraham Primus is an American legal scholar. He currently teaches United States constitutional law at the University of Michigan Law School, where he is Theodore J. St. Antoine Collegiate Professor of Law. In 2008, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for his work on the relationship between history and constitutional interpretation.
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Rosette Susanna "Rosa" Manus (Dutch pronunciation: [roːˈsɛtə syˈsɑnaː ˈroːsaː ˈmaːnʏs] was born 20 August 1881 and died either at Auschwitz or Ravensbruck in 1942. She was a Jewish Dutch pacifist and female suffragist and was involved in women's movements and anti-war movements. She served as the President of the Society for Female Suffrage, the Vice President of the Dutch Association for Women's Interests and Equal Citizenship, and was one of the founding members of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom as well as its secretary. She firmly believed that women could work together across the world to bring peace. Although Manus was fairly well known in feminist circles in the 1920s and 1930s, she remains relatively unknown today. She was involved in feminist work for about thirty years during her lifetime and was known as a "feminist liberal internationalist."
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