Universal access to education

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Students and teachers in Ghana in a parade for inclusive education. Students in Ghana in a parade for inclusive education.jpg
Students and teachers in Ghana in a parade for inclusive education.
Cienfuegos, a non-profit group teaching art to people with disabilities in Cuba. Cienfuegos teaching art to people with disabilities.jpg
Cienfuegos, a non-profit group teaching art to people with disabilities in Cuba.

Universal access to education [1] is the ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background or physical and mental disabilities. [2] The term is used both in college admission for the middle and lower classes, and in assistive technology [3] for the disabled. Some critics feel that this practice in higher education, as opposed to a strict meritocracy, causes lower academic standards. [4] In order to facilitate the access of education to all, countries have right to education. [5]

Contents

Universal access to education encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish the dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, cultural, economic, national and biological backgrounds. Initially developed with the theme of equal opportunity access and inclusion of students with learning or physical and mental disabilities, the themes governing universal access to education have now expanded across all forms of ability and diversity. However, as the definition of diversity is within itself a broad amalgamation, teachers exercising universal access will continually face challenges and incorporate adjustments in their lesson plan to foster themes of equal opportunity of education. [6]

As universal access continues to be incorporated into the U.S. education system, [7] professors and instructors at the college level are required (in some instances by law) to rethink methods of facilitating universal access in their classrooms. Universal access to college education may involve the provision of a variety of different assessment methods of learning and retention. For example, in order to determine how much of the material was learned, a professor may enlist multiple methods of assessment. Methods of assessment may include a comprehensive exam, unit exams, portfolios, research papers, literature reviews, an oral exam or homework assignments. [8] Providing a variety of ways to assess the extent of learning and retention will help identify the gaps in universal access and may also elucidate the ways to improve universal access.

Non-discrimination and equality in education

Examples of marginalized groups Examples of marginalized groups.svg
Examples of marginalized groups

Human rights are internationally recognized as universal rights, therefore meaning it applies to everyone equally and without discrimination. However, a significant number of individuals miss out on education due to discrimination preventing access to education. [9]

Discrimination occurs most prominently in terms of accessing education. For example, girls can face gender-based barriers such as child marriage, pregnancy, and gender-based violence which often prevent them from going to school or contribute to them dropping-out of school. [9] People with disabilities often face literal accessibility issues, such as a lack of ramps or insufficient school transportation, making it more difficult to get to school. Migrants often face administrative barriers that prevent them from enrolling, effectively barring them from education systems. [9]

However, discrimination also occurs within education systems when certain groups receiving an inferior quality of education compared with others, for instance, the quality of education in urban schools tends to be higher than that found in rural areas. [9]

Discrimination also happens after education where different groups of people are less likely to draw the same benefits from their schooling. For example, educated boys tend to leave school with higher wage potential than equally educated girls. [9]

Colored Memorial School of Brunswick, Georgia was built in 1922 Colored Memorial School, Brunswick, GA.JPG
Colored Memorial School of Brunswick, Georgia was built in 1922

Non-discrimination and equality provisions found in international human rights law (IHRL) exist to ensure that the principle that international human rights are universal is applied in practice. Non-discrimination and equality are not abstract concepts under international human rights law (IHRL). [9] They are elaborated human rights that have been developed over decades to address the discrimination that people face daily. Particularly education where the rights to non-discrimination and equality have been applied to the right to education across numerous human rights treaties, including one dedicated to the issue, known as UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education. [9]

Despite the strength of non-discrimination and equality law, eliminating discrimination and inequalities is a challenge that individual states and the international community face. This was acknowledged in 2015 when the international community vowed to ‘leave no one behind’. [9]

International and regional human rights treaties apply the rights to non-discrimination and equality to the right to education of specific marginalised groups. Marginalized groups are those who have suffered prolonged and historical discrimination, usually, but not exclusively, on the basis of identity (gender, for example), characteristics (ethnicity, race), or circumstance (refugees, migrants, internally displaced persons). Marginalized groups are very likely to be subject to multiple, compound, or intersectional forms of discrimination. [9]

Examples of marginalised groups include: [9]

Access to education in racial minorities

In the context of post-secondary education, there exists a lack of access to education that disproportionately affects minority students. The number of students who pursue higher education heavily relies on the number of students that graduate from high school. Since the late 1970s, the rate in which young adults between the ages of 25 and 29 years old have graduated from high school and received a diploma or the equivalent has stagnated between 85 and 88 percent. [12] In terms of race, there is a statistical gap between minority groups’ rates of graduation and white students’ rates of graduation. In 2006, the rate of high school graduation was 93 percent, for Black students was 86 percent, and for Hispanic students was 63 percent. [12]

Although minority college attendance has increased throughout the years, the disparity has remained. In terms of completing high school, in 2010, white (47 percent) and Asian (66 percent) students were more likely to have graduated from high school. In comparison, only 39 percent of Pacific Islanders, 37 percent of Black students, 31 percent of Hispanics, and 28 percent of Native Americans completed high school. [13] This transfers over to the numbers of students in minority groups who have enrolled in college, even though these students have great aspirations to attend college. [14] When examining enrollment numbers, Black (23 percent) and Hispanic (19 percent) students enrolled into and attended 2-year and 4-year universities at lower rates, compared to white (45 percent), Asian (53 percent), and multiracial (37 percent) students. [13] However, Black and Hispanic students are more likely to enroll into 2-year universities. [14]

Causes of disparities

The disparity in access to higher education is primarily due to a difference in college readiness these students experience. College readiness refers to how prepared for higher education students are. Although there are several ways to define it, college readiness involves measuring four aspects of student performance: basic skills, knowledge of certain content areas, grade point averages (GPA), and college knowledge, also referred to as social capital. [14] Basic skills include being able to read, write and think analytically about situations; content areas that students should have knowledge of include English and mathematics. Both aspects are crucial to college readiness because of their real-world application, and if a student is not proficient in these two areas, they are less likely to even pursue university. However, for many minority students they do not meet the basic requirements for colleges and universities.

In terms of GPA and college knowledge, racial disparities exist. Regarding GPA, the gap in school performance between minority and white students is significant. [14] This gap can influence minority students’ aspirations towards attending college, which affects minority enrollment rates. In terms of college knowledge, many minority students do not have access to social capital because of the lack of resources catered to them to ensure their success. There also is a lack of knowledge among minority students about what resources are available, especially because many of them are first-generation students. [15]

Work towards better access

Although racial disparities in college readiness exist, there are several ways to counteract them. One way involves the way that students’ communities support them. Their counselors, teachers, and parents must work with them to ensure that their school records, academic records, and such are accurately conveyed to colleges and universities. [15] Other crucial factors that would contribute to higher rates of minority enrollment include encouraging students through policies and rewards for focusing on information pertaining to college, providing schools with the necessary resources, and cultivating the classroom environment to be encouraging of students’ skills so that they are better prepared for college. [14] Organizations like the National Association for College Admission Counseling should also be more aware of this issue as well as do more to bring more attention to these disparities. [15] Changes also must occur on an institution level for minority students to better succeed. [16]

Programs like the ones developed at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County work towards eliminating disparities in higher education access in minority students. Their programs mostly focus on minorities having better access and getting more involved in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. One program, the Meyerhoff Scholars Program, aids students by addressing the social capital aspect college readiness. This program connects students to financial resources as well as academic and social support, and they also receive research opportunities and connect with on-campus staff members. [16] Other programs like the ACTiVATE program and the Partnerships for Innovation Program have stemmed from the Meyerhoff Scholars Program. These have pushed minority students towards success in accessing and completing post-secondary education, especially in STEM fields. [16] Other programs across the country have also aided minority students in succeeding in higher education.

Access to education by law

President George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act No Child Left Behind Act.jpg
President George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act

In 2009 the House of Indian Parliament and the President of India both signed and approved a bill that would grant free law mandated education for children ages six to fourteen. [17] It was considered a major step towards universal education for all. Muchkund Dubey author of the article “The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 : The Story of Missed Opportunity" discusses and highlights the issues of access, quality of education, financial implication, and discrimination. [17]

In the United States, Brown vs. Board of Education was a landmark decision because it found and declared that, “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal”. [18] This began the process of desegregation in many schools that had not desegregated yet. [19] The significance of Brown vs. Board was the universal right of all students to attend educational institutions equally rather than using racial segregation to separate students. Jonathan Kozol, author of The Shame of the Nation, [20] talks about how “physical conditions in these newly integrated schools were generally more cheerful…state of mind among the teachers and the children [was] more high-spirited” in the aftermath of desegregation. [19]

Universal access

Joe Biden speaking with school children Joe Biden speaking with school children.jpg
Joe Biden speaking with school children

Universal Access to education is defined as having equal opportunities to take part in any educational system. However, some individuals, groups, or ethnic groups face barriers to equal access. The United States is credited with the current idea of universal access as a concern for handicapped persons. [21] Two international agencies (World Health Organization and World Bank) estimated that around one billion people all over the world have various types of disabilities. Between 93 and 150 million of them are children. [22] Plan International revealed that these kids are less likely to attend school, and if enrolled, they are often separated from their peers. [23] The Global Partnership for Education said approximately 90 percent of children with disabilities from low and middle income nations are out of school. [24] Historically, these students have been excluded from the ordinary education system and referred to special learning schools. [25]

Despite all improvements made, education up to this day is inaccessible to millions of schoolchildren globally. Over 72 million children of primary education age are out of school, and around 759 million adults are uneducated. They do not have the resources for developing the situation of themselves, their families, and their countries. [26] Poverty leads to lack of education. [27] In almost all countries (developing and developed), children face barriers to education as a result of inequalities that emanate from health, gender, and cultural identity like religion, language, and ethnic origin. Factors associated with poverty include unemployment, illiteracy among parents, and ailments increase the possibility of non-schooling and dropout rates. [28] Universal primary education is widely known as a major issue for many nations. The majority of these developing states do not possess the financial resources needed to build schools, provide books and other materials, and recruit, train, and pay teachers. [29] The Sub-Saharan African region is the most affected region in the world as roughly 32 million African children are still uneducated. [30] This is followed by Central and East Asia as well as the Pacific with over 27 million children uneducated. [28] However, observers noted that universal access to education remains an attainable goal by 2030. [31]

See also

Sources

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Right to education handbook​ , 276, UNESCO, Right to Education Initiative (UK), UNESCO. UNESCO.

Related Research Articles

Affirmative action refers to a set of policies and practices within a government or organization seeking to benefit marginalized groups. Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has been justified by the idea that it may help with bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to education, and promoting diversity, social equity and redressing alleged wrongs, harms, or hindrances, also called substantive equality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">School discipline</span> Types of disciplinary actions used by schools against students

School discipline relates to actions taken by teachers or school organizations toward students when their behavior disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the school. Discipline can guide the children's behavior or set limits to help them learn to take better care of themselves, other people and the world around them.

People with disabilities in the United States are a significant minority group, making up a fifth of the overall population and over half of Americans older than eighty. There is a complex history underlying the U.S. and its relationship with its disabled population, with great progress being made in the last century to improve the livelihood of disabled citizens through legislation providing protections and benefits. Most notably, the Americans with Disabilities Act is a comprehensive anti-discrimination policy that works to protect Americans with disabilities in public settings and the workplace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Pakistan</span>

Education in Pakistan is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Education and the provincial governments, while the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation and the financing of research and development. Article 25-A of the Constitution of Pakistan obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality education to children of the age group 5 to 16 years. "The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law". Considering the challenges confronting the youth in Pakistan, it's hardly astonishing that well-off and educated young individuals and professionals are opting to depart the country whenever they have the opportunity, exacerbating the brain drain phenomenon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Saudi Arabia</span>

Public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. Education is the second-largest sector of government spending in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, which is nearly double the global average of 4.6%. Islamic studies are part of the education system alongside scientific and social studies that vary from educational institution to another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Right to education</span> Human right

The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of international conventions, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognizes a right to free, primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all with the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction of free higher education. In 2021, 171 states were parties to the Covenant.

Education in Tanzania is provided by both the public and private sectors, starting with pre-primary education, followed by primary, secondary ordinary, secondary advanced, and ideally, university level education. Free and accessible education is a human right in Tanzania. The Tanzanian government began to emphasize the importance of education shortly after its independence in 1961. Curriculum is standardized by level, and it is the basis for the national examinations. Achievement levels are important, yet there are various causes of children not receiving the education that they need, including the need to help families with work, poor accessibility, and a variety of learning disabilities. While there is a lack of resources for special needs education, Tanzania has committed to inclusive education and attention on disadvantaged learners, as pointed out in the 2006 Education Sector Review AIDE-MEMORE. The government's National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty in 2005 heavily emphasized on education and literacy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Jordan</span> Overview of education in Jordan

The education system of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan includes basic, secondary, and higher education and has dramatically evolved since the establishment of the state in the early 1900s. The role played by a good education system has been significant in the development of Jordan from a predominantly agrarian to an industrialized nation over time.

The second goal in the United Nations Millennium Development Goal is to achieve Universal Primary Education, more specifically, to "ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike will be required to complete a full course of primary schooling." Education is vital to meeting all other Millennium Development Goals: "Educating children gives the next generation the tools to fight poverty and prevent disease, including malaria and AIDS." Despite the significance of investing in education, the recent report, Fixing the Broken Promise of Education for All: Findings from the Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children—produced by UNESCO Institute for Statistics and UNICEF found that the world has missed this 2015 target of universal primary education, and there are currently 58 million children, of primary school age, out of school worldwide.

Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) is a sex education instruction method based on a curriculum that aims to give students the holistic knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values to make healthy and informed choices in their sexual lives. The intention is that this understanding will help students understand their body and reproductive processes, engage in safer sex by reduce incidents of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV and HPV, reduce unplanned and unwanted pregnancies, as well as lowering rates of domestic and sexual violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inclusion (disability rights)</span>

Inclusion, in relation to persons with disabilities, is defined as including individuals with disabilities in everyday activities and ensuring they have access to resources and opportunities in ways that are similar to their non-disabled peers. Disability rights advocates define true inclusion as results-oriented, rather than focused merely on encouragement. To this end, communities, businesses, and other groups and organizations are considered inclusive if people with disabilities do not face barriers to participation and have equal access to opportunities and resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Zimbabwe</span> Overview of education in Zimbabwe

Education in Zimbabwe under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education for primary and secondary education, and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development for higher education. Both are regulated by the Cabinet of Zimbabwe. The education system in Zimbabwe encompasses 13 years of primary and secondary school and runs from January to December. The school year is a total of 40 weeks with three terms and a month break in-between each term.

Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies, to socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed. Individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are often denied access to schools with adequate resources. Inequality leads to major differences in the educational success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic mobility. Inequality in education is broken down into different types: regional inequality, inequality by sex, inequality by social stratification, inequality by parental income, inequality by parent occupation, and many more.

Housing discrimination in the United States refers to the historical and current barriers, policies, and biases that prevent equitable access to housing. Housing discrimination became more pronounced after the abolition of slavery in 1865, typically as part of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation. The federal government didn't begin to take action against these laws until 1917, when the Supreme Court struck down ordinances prohibiting blacks from occupying or owning buildings in majority-white neighborhoods in Buchanan v. Warley. However, the federal government as well as local governments continued to be directly responsible for housing discrimination through redlining and race-restricted covenants until the Civil Rights Act of 1968.

Structural inequality has been identified as the bias that is built into the structure of organizations, institutions, governments, or social networks. Structural inequality occurs when the fabric of organizations, institutions, governments or social networks contains an embedded bias which provides advantages for some members and marginalizes or produces disadvantages for other members. This can involve property rights, status, or unequal access to health care, housing, education and other physical or financial resources or opportunities. Structural inequality is believed to be an embedded part of the culture of the United States due to the history of slavery and the subsequent suppression of equal civil rights of minority races. Structural inequality has been encouraged and maintained in the society of the United States through structured institutions such as the public school system with the goal of maintaining the existing structure of wealth, employment opportunities, and social standing of the races by keeping minority students from high academic achievement in high school and college as well as in the workforce of the country. In the attempt to equalize allocation of state funding, policymakers evaluate the elements of disparity to determine an equalization of funding throughout school districts.p.(14)

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female education in Nigeria</span> Basic human right in Nigeria

Females in Nigeria have a basic human right to be educated, and this right has been recognized since the year 1948 adoption of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) According to a report in 2014, female education has an important impact on the development of a stable, prosperous and healthy nation state resulting in active, productive and empowered citizens. Educating girls develop growth rates, encourages independence of the girl child and reduces social disparities. In 2009, the Nigerian Population Council (NPC) observed that women with higher educational qualifications are more likely to be in formal wage employment than those at the level of primary school education.

Discrimination in education is the act of discriminating against people belonging to certain demographics in enjoying full right to education. It is a violation of human rights. Education discrimination can be on the basis of ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, race, economic condition, language spoken, caste, disability and religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational inequality in the United States</span>

Unequal access to education in the United States results in unequal outcomes for students. Disparities in academic access among students in the United States are the result of several factors including: government policies, school choice, family wealth, parenting style, implicit bias towards the race or ethnicity of the student, and the resources available to the student and their school. Educational inequality contributes to a number of broader problems in the United States, including income inequality and increasing prison populations. Educational inequalities in the United States are wide-ranging, and many potential solutions have been proposed to mitigate their impacts on students.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disability in Luxembourg</span>

People with disability in Luxembourg have some legal protections from discrimination and their needs can be provided through various government policies. Students with disabilities have a fairly good rate of completing school compared to peers without a disability. Luxembourg signed onto the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities on March 30, 2007. Much of the country is accessible, however, there are no legal provisions for reasonable accommodations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Development Goal 4</span> 4th of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to achieve quality education for all

Sustainable Development Goal 4 is about quality education and is among the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in September 2015. The full title of SDG 4 is "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all".

References

  1. ↑ "Universal Access to Primary Education - World Affairs Council". www.wacphila.org. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  2. ↑ "Universal Access to Learning Improves all Countries | Global Campaign For Education United States Chapter". Global Campaign For Education United States Chapter. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  3. ↑ "Definition of Assistive Technology". www.gpat.org. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  4. ↑ MacDonald, Heather (Spring 2018). "How Identity Politics Is Harming the Sciences". City Journal. Manhattan Institute. Retrieved 12 June 2018. Lowering standards and diverting scientists' energy into combating phantom sexism and racism is reckless in a highly competitive, ruthless, and unforgiving global marketplace.
  5. ↑ "Understanding education as a right". Right to Education Initiative. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  6. ↑ "Equal Right, Equal Opportunity – Inclusive Education for All | Education". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  7. ↑ "Progress for America's Children | U.S. Department of Education". www.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  8. ↑ "Methods of assessment". www.brookes.ac.uk. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Right to education handbook. UNESCO. 2019. ISBN   978-92-3-100305-9.
  10. ↑ "Leave No Girl Behind in Africa". Human Rights Watch. 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  11. ↑ "Attacks on Education | Human Rights Watch". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  12. 1 2 Planty, M., Provasnik, S., Hussar, W., Snyder, T. (2007). The Condition of Education 2007 NCES 2007-064 (pp. 58-59). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/2007064.pdf
  13. 1 2 Ross, T., Kena, G., Rathbun, A., KewalRamani, A., Zhang, J., Kristapovich, P., & Manning, E. (2012). Postsecondary Education. Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study (NCES 2012-046). (pp. 160-190). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.                     https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012046.pdf
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009) College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. The Future of Children, 19(1), pp. 185-204) https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=ehh&AN=43308224&scope=site&custid=s8448101
  15. 1 2 3 Jackson, N. (1988) Minority access to higher education. The Journal of College Admissions. 53-62. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ992740.pdf   
  16. 1 2 3 Hrabowski, F. A. (2011) Institutional change in higher education: innovation and collaboration. Peabody Journal of Education, 89, pp. 291-304. doi : 10.1080/0161956X.2014.913440
  17. 1 2 Dubey, Muchkund (2010). "The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009: The Story of a Missed Opportunity". Social Change. 40: 1–13. doi:10.1177/004908570904000102. S2CID   144846615.
  18. ↑ "Brown v. Board at Fifty: "With an Even Hand"". Library of Congress. 13 November 2004. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
  19. 1 2 Kozol, Jonathan (2005). The Shame of the Nation : The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America . New York: Crown Publishing Group. p.  6. ISBN   9781400052448.
  20. ↑ Glazer, Nathan (25 September 2005). "'The Shame of the Nation': Separate and Unequal". The New York Times. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  21. ↑ "The Right to Education of Persons with Disabilities". International Disability Alliance. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  22. ↑ "Persons with disabilities". Right to Education Initiative. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  23. ↑ "Inclusive education for children with disabilities". Plan International. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  24. ↑ "Education Data". www.globalpartnership.org. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  25. ↑ "Reading: Universal Access to Education | Sociology". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  26. ↑ "Why we need to aim for more than universal education". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  27. ↑ "How Does Poverty Affect Education? | LSU Online". Louisiana State University Online. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  28. 1 2 "Right to Education : Situation around the world - Humanium • We make children's rights happen". Humanium • We make children's rights happen. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  29. ↑ "Universal primary education | Global development". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  30. ↑ "Education in Africa". uis.unesco.org. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
  31. ↑ "Access to education and its issues". Times of India Blog. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
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