Clathrus ruber

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Clathrus ruber
Clathrus ruber spacepleb.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Clathrus
Species:
C. ruber
Binomial name
Clathrus ruber
P.Micheli ex Pers. (1801)
Synonyms [1] [2]
  • Clathrus flavescensPers. (1801)
  • Clathrus cancellatus Tourn. ex Fr. (1823)
  • Clathrus nicaeensis Barla (1879)
  • Clathrus ruber var. flavescens(Pers.) Quadr. & Lunghini (1990)

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus . It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.

The fruit body initially appears like a whitish "egg" attached to the ground at the base by cords called rhizomorphs. The egg has a delicate, leathery outer membrane enclosing the compressed lattice that surrounds a layer of olive-green spore-bearing slime called the gleba, which contains high levels of calcium that help protect the fruit body during development. As the egg ruptures and the fruit body expands, the gleba is carried upward on the inner surfaces of the spongy lattice, and the egg membrane remains as a volva around the base of the structure. The fruit body can reach heights of up to 20 cm (8 in). The color of the fruit body, which can range from pink to orange to red, results primarily from the carotenoid pigments lycopene and beta-carotene. The gleba has a fetid odor, somewhat like rotting meat, which attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores.

The fungus is saprobic, feeding off decaying woody plant material, and is often found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil, grassy places, or on woodchip garden mulches. Although considered primarily a European species, C. ruber has been introduced to other areas, and now has a wide distribution that includes all continents except Antarctica. Although the edibility of the fungus is not known with certainty, it has a deterrent odor. It was poorly regarded in southern European folklore, suggesting that those who handled the mushroom risked contracting various ailments.

Taxonomy

Micheli's 1729 illustration Clathrus ruber by Micheli 1729.jpg
Micheli's 1729 illustration
Phylogeny and relationships of C. ruber and selected Phallaceae species based on ribosomal DNA sequences [3]

Clathrus ruber was illustrated in 1560 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Nomenclator Aquatilium Animantium—Gesner mistook the mushroom for a marine organism. [4] It appeared in a woodcut in John Gerard's 1597 Great Herball, [5] shortly thereafter in Carolus Clusius ' 1601 Fungorum in Pannoniis Observatorum Brevis Historia, [6] and was one of the species featured in Cassiano dal Pozzo's museo cartaceo ("paper museum") that consisted of thousands of illustrations of the natural world. [7]

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1729, by the Italian Pier Antonio Micheli in his Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita, who gave it its current scientific name. [8] The species was once referred to by American authors as Clathrus cancellatus L., as they used a system of nomenclature based on the former American Code of Botanical Nomenclature, in which the starting point for naming species was Linnaeus's 1753 Species Plantarum . The International Code for Botanical Nomenclature now uses the same starting date, but names of Gasteromycetes used by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum (1801) are sanctioned and automatically replace earlier names. Since Persoon used the specific epithet ruber, the correct name for the species is Clathrus ruber. Several historical names of the fungus are now synonyms: Clathrus flavescens, named by Persoon in 1801; [9] Clathrus cancellatus by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and published by Elias Fries in 1823; [10] Clathrus nicaeensis, published by Jean-Baptiste Barla in 1879; [11] and Clathrus ruber var. flavescens, published by Livio Quadraccia and Dario Lunghini in 1990. [12] [13]

Clathrus ruber is the type species of the genus Clathrus , and is part of the group of Clathrus species known as the Laternoid series. Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle (fruit body) that are not joined together at the base, and the spongy structure of the receptacle. [14] According to a molecular analysis published in 2006, out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study, C. ruber is most closely related to Aseroe rubra , Clathrus archeri , Laternea triscapa , and Clathrus chrysomycelinus . [3]

The generic name Clathrus is derived from Ancient Greek κλειθρον or "lattice", and the specific epithet is Latin ruber, meaning "red". [15] The mushroom is commonly known as the "basket stinkhorn", [16] the "lattice stinkhorn", [17] or the "red cage". [18] It was known to the locals of the Adriatic hinterland in the former Yugoslavia as veštičije srce or vještičino srce, meaning "witch's heart". [19] This is still the case in parts of rural France, where it is known as cœur de sorcière. [20]

Description

Information icon.svg
Gleba icon.png Glebal hymenium
No cap icon.svgNo distinct cap
NA cap icon.svg Hymenium attachment is not applicable
Volva stipe icon.svg Stipe has a volva
Transparent spore print icon.svg
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is olive to olive-brown
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic

Before the volva opens, the fruiting body is egg-shaped to roughly spherical, up to 6 cm (2+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with a gelatinous interior up to 3 mm (1⁄8 in) thick. White to grayish in color, it is initially smooth, but develops a network of polygonal marks on the surface prior to opening as the internal structures expand and stretch the peridium taut. [21] The fruit body, or receptacle, bursts the egg open as it expands (a process that can take as little as a few hours), [6] and leaves the remains of the peridium as a cup or volva surrounding the base. [21] The receptacle ranges in color from red to pale orange, and it is often lighter in color approaching the base. The color appears to be dependent upon the temperature and humidity of the environment. [22] The receptacle consists of a spongy network of "arms" interlaced to make meshes of unequal size. At the top of the receptacle, the arms are up to 1.5 cm (1⁄2 in) thick, but they taper down to smaller widths near the base. A cross-section of the arm reveals it to be spongy, and made up of one wide inner tube and two indistinct rows of tubes towards the outside. The outer surface of the receptacle is ribbed or wrinkled. [21] There are 7–20 angular windows [23] and 80–120 mesh holes in the receptacle. [24]

A considerable variation in height has been reported for the receptacle, ranging from 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 in) tall. [6] [23] The base of the fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by rhizomorphs (thickened cords of mycelia). The dark olive-green to olive-brown, foul-smelling sticky gleba covers the inner surface of the receptacle, except near the base. The odor—described as resembling rotting meat [25] [26] —attracts flies, other insects, and, in one report, a scarab beetle ( Scarabaeus sacer ) [27] that help disperse the spores. [22] [28] The putrid odor—and people's reaction to it—have been well documented. In 1862 Mordecai Cubitt Cooke wrote "it is recorded of a botanist who gathered one for the purpose of drying it for his herbarium, that he was compelled by the stench to rise during the night and cast the offender out the window". [29] American mycologist David Arora called the odor "the vilest of any stinkhorn". [22] The receptacle collapses about 24 hours after its initial eruption from the egg. [6]

The spores are elongated, smooth, and have dimensions of 4–6 by 1.5–2 μm. [21] Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that C. ruber (in addition to several other Phallales species) has a hilar scar—a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma. [30] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are six-spored. [31]

Biochemistry

Lycopene.svg
Lycopene
Beta-carotene-2D-skeletal.svg
beta-carotene

Like other stinkhorn fungi, C. ruber bioaccumulates the element manganese. It has been postulated that this element plays a role in the enzymatic breakdown of the gleba with simultaneous formation of odorous compounds. Compounds like dimethyl sulfide, aldehydes, and amines—which contribute to the disagreeable odor of the gleba—are produced by the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids and amino acids, but the enzymes will only work in the presence of manganese. [6] A chemical analysis of the elemental composition of the gelatinous outer layer, the embryonic receptacle and the gleba showed the gelatinous layer to be richest in potassium, calcium, manganese, and iron ions. Calcium ion stabilizes the polysaccharide gel, protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg. Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle. The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a "placenta-like" function—serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands. [6]

Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes, predominantly lycopene and beta-carotene—the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots, respectively. Lycopene is also the main pigment in the closely related fungus Clathrus archeri , while beta-carotene is the predominant pigment in the Phallaceae species Mutinus caninus , M. ravenelii , and M. elegans . [32]

Similar species

Clathrus ruber may be distinguished from the closely related tropical species C. crispus by the absence of the corrugated rims which surround each mesh of the C. crispus fruit body. [33] The phylogenetically close species C. chrysomycelinus has a yellow receptacle with arms that are structurally simpler, and its gleba is concentrated on specialized "glebifers" located at the lattice intersections. It is known only from Venezuela to southern Brazil. [21] Clathrus columnatus has a fruit body with two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined together at the apex. [34]

Habitat and distribution

Like most of the species of the order Phallales, Clathrus ruber is saprobic—a decomposer of wood and plant matter—and is commonly found fruiting in mulch beds. [35] The fungus grows alone or clustered together near woody debris, in lawns, gardens, and cultivated soil. [36]

Clathrus ruber was originally described by Micheli from Italy. It is considered native to southern and central continental Europe, as well as Macaronesia (the Azores [21] and the Canary Islands [37] ), western Turkey, [38] North Africa (Algeria), and western Asia (Iran). [21] The fungus is rare in central Europe, [19] and is listed in the Red data book of Ukraine. [39]

The fungus has probably been introduced elsewhere, often because of the use of imported mulch used in gardening and landscaping. [36] It may have extended its range northwards into the British Isles or been introduced in the nineteenth century. [40] It now has a mainly southerly distribution in England and has been recorded from Cornwall, [41] Devon, [42] Dorset, Somerset, [21] the Isle of Wight, [43] Hampshire, Berkshire, Sussex, Surrey, and Middlesex. In Scotland, it has been recorded from Argyll. It is also known from Wales, the Channel Islands, [21] and Ireland. [44] The fungus also occurs in the United States in urban areas of its likely introduction [23] (in California, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Alabama, Virginia, North Carolina, and New York), [45] as well as in Canada, Mexico, and Australasia. [46] The species was also reported from South America (Argentina). [47] In China, it has been collected from Guangdong, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Tibet. [24] Records from Japan [48] are referable to Clathrus kusanoi ; records from the Caribbean are probably of C. crispus. [21]

In North America, the species can be found from October to March. [23]

Toxicity

Various stages of development with some "eggs" bisected Clathrus ruber 125338.jpg
Various stages of development with some "eggs" bisected

Although edibility for C. ruber has not been officially documented, its foul smell would dissuade most people from eating it. In general, stinkhorn mushrooms are considered edible when still in the egg stage, and are even considered delicacies in some parts of Europe and Asia, where they are pickled raw and sold in markets as "devil's eggs". [22] An 1854 report provides a cautionary tale to those considering consuming the mature fruit body. Dr. F. Peyre Porcher, of Charleston, South Carolina, described an account of poisoning caused by the mushroom:

A young person having eaten a bit of it, after six hours suffered from a painful tension of the lower stomach, and violent convulsions. He lost the use of his speech, and fell into a state of stupor, which lasted for forty-eight hours. After taking an emetic he threw up a fragment of the mushroom, with two worms, and mucus, tinged with blood. Milk, oil, and emollient fomentations, were then employed with success. [49]

C. ruber is generally listed as inedible or poisonous in many British mushroom publications from 1974 to 2008.

British mycologist Donald Dring, in his 1980 monograph on the family Clathraceae, wrote that C. ruber was not regarded highly in southern European folklore. He mentions a case of poisoning following its ingestion, reported by Barla in 1858, and notes that Ciro Pollini reported finding it growing on a human skull in a tomb in a deserted church. [21] According to John Ramsbottom, Gascons consider the mushroom a cause of cancer; [50] they will usually bury specimens they find. [6] In other parts of France it has been reputed to produce skin rashes or cause convulsions. [50]

In culture

Mycologist David Arora likened the unusual shape of the receptacle to a whiffleball. [22] The German Mycological Society described it as "like an alien from a science fiction horror film" and named the species the 2011 "Mushroom of the Year". [51]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phallaceae</span> Family of fungi

Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden, as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.

<i>Phallus</i> (fungus) Genus of fungi

The genus Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, is a group of basidiomycetes which produce a phallic, often foul-scented mushroom, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales. The best known species is the common stinkhorn.

<i>Phallus impudicus</i> Fungus known as the common stinkhorn

Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and North America, where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens. It appears from summer to late autumn. The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy, dark olive colored conical head. Known as the gleba, this material contains the spores, and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor—described as resembling carrion. Despite its foul smell, it is not usually poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France, Germany and the Czech Republic.

<i>Phallus ravenelii</i> Stinkhorn fungus from North America

Phallus ravenelii, commonly known as Ravenel's stinkhorn, is a fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is found in eastern North America. Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature. It is saprobic, and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in wood debris, from forests to mulched gardens or sawdust piles in urban areas. It appears from August to October. The fruit body emerges from a pink or lavender-colored egg to form a tall, cylindrical, hollow and spongy white stalk with a bell-shaped cap. The remains of the egg persist as a white to pink or lilac volva at the base of the stalk. The cap is covered in a foul-smelling olive-green spore slime, which attracts insects that help to spread the spores. Sometimes, the cap has a "veil" attached—a thin membrane that hangs underneath. The lack of a roughly ridged and pitted cap differentiates it from the closely related Phallus impudicus. The fungus is named after Henry William Ravenel, a botanist who first discovered it in 1846, though it remained undescribed until 1873. It is considered to be an edible mushroom while in its egg form.

<i>Clathrus</i> Genus of fungi

Clathrus is a genus of fungi of the family Phallaceae, the stinkhorn fungi. Mature fruit bodies are covered with olive-brown slimy gleba, containing spores, that attract flies. These fungi are saprobic and are common in mulch.

<i>Phallus hadriani</i> Dune stinkhorn or sand stinkhorn fungus

Phallus hadriani, commonly known as the dune stinkhorn or the sand stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to 20 cm tall by 4 cm thick, and is spongy, fragile, and hollow. At the top of the stem is a ridged and pitted, thimble-like cap over which is spread olive-colored spore slime (gleba). Shortly after emerging, the gleba liquefies and releases a fetid odor that attracts insects, which help disperse the spores. P. hadriani may be distinguished from the similar P. impudicus by the presence of a pink or violet-colored volva at the base of the stem, and by differences in odor.

<i>Phallus rubicundus</i> Tropical stinkhorn fungus

Phallus rubicundus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. First described in 1811, it has a wide distribution in tropical regions. It has the typical stinkhorn structure consisting of a spongy stalk up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall arising from a gelatinous "egg" up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter. Atop the stalk is a pitted, conical cap that has a foul-smelling, gelatinous, green spore mass spread over it.

<i>Mutinus caninus</i> Species of fungus

Mutinus caninus, commonly known as the dog stinkhorn, is a small thin, phallus-shaped woodland fungus, with a dark tip. It is often found growing in small groups on wood debris, or in leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Europe, Asia, and eastern North America. It is not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature 'eggs' being consumed.

<i>Lysurus mokusin</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even close in on each other to form a spire. The gleba—an olive-green slimy spore mass—is carried on the outer surface of the arms. The fruit body has an odor comparable to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh", or "sewage" when mature.

<i>Ileodictyon cibarium</i> Species of fungus

Ileodictyon cibarium is a saprotrophic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. It is native to Australia and New Zealand, where it is commonly known as the basket fungus or the white basket fungus, alluding to its fruit bodies, shaped like a round or oval ball with interlaced or latticed branches, resembling polyhedra similar to closed fullerenes. Although the immature spherical fruitbodies are reportedly edible, the mature fruit body is foul-smelling and partly covered with a slime layer containing spores (gleba) on the inner surfaces.

<i>Lysurus periphragmoides</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch. The fruit body, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore mass, the gleba, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the family Phallaceae, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible.

<i>Pseudocolus fusiformis</i> Species of fungus

Pseudocolus fusiformis is a stinkhorn mushroom in the Phallaceae, a family well known for a remarkable range of fruit body types. It is commonly known as the stinky squid, because of its fetid odor, and its three or four upright "arms" which are connected at the top. The malodorous smell comes from the dark greenish slimy gleba covering the inside faces of the arms, and attracts insects that help to disperse the spores.

<i>Clathrus columnatus</i> Species of fungus

Clathrus columnatus, commonly known as the column stinkhorn, is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae. Similar to other stinkhorn fungi, the fruiting body, known as the receptaculum, starts out as a subterranean "egg" form. As the fungus develops, the receptaculum expands and erupts out of the protective volva, ultimately developing into mature structures characterized by two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined at the apex. The fully grown receptaculum reaches heights of 8 cm tall. The inside surfaces of the columns are covered with a fetid olive-brown spore-containing slime, which attracts flies and other insects that help disseminate the spores.

<i>Mutinus elegans</i> Species of stinkhorn fungus

Mutinus elegans, commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn, the dog stinkhorn, the headless stinkhorn, or the devil's dipstick, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. The fruit body begins its development in an "egg" form, resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground. As the fungus matures, a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip. The stalk is covered with a foul-smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length. Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores, assisting in their dispersal.

<i>Aseroe coccinea</i> Species of fungus

Aseroe coccinea is a species of stinkhorn fungus in the genus Aseroe. First reported in Japan in 1989, it was not formally validated as a species until 2007, the delay related to a publication error. The receptacle, or fruit body, begins as a partially buried whitish egg-shaped structure, which bursts open as a hollow white stipe with reddish arms, then erupts and grows to a height of up to 15 mm (0.6 in). It matures into a star-shaped structure with seven to nine thin reddish tubular "arms" up to 10 mm (0.4 in) long radiating from the central area. The top of the receptacle is covered with dark olive-brown spore-slime, or gleba. A. coccinea can be distinguished from the more common species A. rubra by differences in the color of the receptacle, and in the structure of the arms. The edibility of the fungus has not been reported.

<i>Clathrus crispus</i> Species of fungus

Clathrus crispus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. Reported as new to science in 1820, it is found in the Americas.

<i>Clathrus transvaalensis</i> Species of fungus

Clathrus transvaalensis is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It is found in South Africa. It was described as new to science in 1990 by mycologists Albert Eicker and Derek Reid. The fruit body forms a hollow, pale yellow to pinkish lattice structure.

<i>Staheliomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Staheliomyces is a fungal genus in the stinkhorn family. The genus was considered monotypic for over 100 years, containing the single neotropical species Staheliomyces cinctus, until a 2022 study revealed four additional, cryptic species. Members are colloquially known as the strangled stinkhorns. The genus is found in Central America and northern South America. The fruit body of the fungus is a hollow, whitish, cylindric stalk up to 16 cm (6.3 in) tall, with conspicuous pits and holes. Near the top of the stalk is a pinched-off zone covered with unpleasant-smelling slimy spore mass called gleba. The gleba attracts stingless bees that help disseminate the spores.

<i>Aseroe floriformis</i> Species of fungus

Aseroe floriformis is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family Phallaceae. Described as a new species in 2005, it is known only from northeast Brazil, where it grows on sandy soil. The fruit body has a raspberry-colored stipe, and, unlike other members of the genus Aseroe does not have radiating branches.

<i>Colus hirudinosus</i> Species of fungus

Colus hirudinosus is a species of stinkhorn fungus (Gasteromycete) found in Asia, Australia, northern Africa, and southern Europe. The fruit body has a short, thick stalk that divides into several spongy, wrinkled, stalk-like, orange to red columns that are united at the top, thus forming a lattice. The spores are found within the gleba—a dark, olive-brown slime that coats the inside of the columns. Spores are spread by insects that are attracted by the fetid smell of the gleba, eat the spores, and pass them on to germinate elsewhere.

References

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  11. ↑ "Clathrus nicaeensis Barla". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
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  51. ↑ "Pilz des Jahres 2011: Roter Gitterling (Clathrus ruber Pers.)" (in German). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mykologie. Retrieved 2011-02-07. Diese Kreatur sieht eher aus wie ein Alien aus einem Sciencefictionhorrorfilm.

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