Edible mushroom

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White mushrooms and enoki mushrooms are some of the most common edible mushrooms, commonly sold in stores. A White Mushrooms in Hong Kong (cropped).jpg
White mushrooms and enoki mushrooms are some of the most common edible mushrooms, commonly sold in stores.

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi (fungi that bear fruiting structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye). Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. Mushrooms that have a particularly desirable taste are described as "choice". Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.

Contents

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genus Amanita , particularly A. phalloides , the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid and cause food poisoning. [1] Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals within polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals including arsenic and iron—sometimes in lethal concentrations.

Several varieties of fungi contain psychedelic compounds—the magic mushrooms —while variously resembling non-psychoactive species. The most commonly consumed for recreational use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis , with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin.

Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prized truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Despite long-term use in folk medicine, there is no scientific evidence that consuming "medicinal mushrooms" cures or lowers the risk of human diseases.

Description

Assorted wild edible mushrooms Edible fungi in basket 2009 G1 (cropped).jpg
Assorted wild edible mushrooms

Mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand. [2] Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. [3] Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor. [4] [5]

List of edible mushrooms

Commercially cultivated

Commercially harvested wild fungi

Commercially cultivated Japanese edible mushroom species (clockwise from left): enokitake, buna-shimeji, bunapi-shimeji, king oyster mushroom and shiitake Asian mushrooms.jpg
Commercially cultivated Japanese edible mushroom species (clockwise from left): enokitake, buna-shimeji, bunapi-shimeji, king oyster mushroom and shiitake

Other edible wild species

Auricularia auricula-judae Hirneola auricula-judae (xndr).jpg
Auricularia auricula-judae
Lactarius salmonicolor Lactarius salmonicolor dsc05255 nevit.jpg
Lactarius salmonicolor

Conditionally edible species

A. muscaria, a conditionally-edible species Fliegenpilz.JPG
A. muscaria , a conditionally-edible species

Cultivation

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries. [23] A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular, yet remains a challenge to cultivate.

Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.

In 2019, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 11.9 million tonnes, led by China with 75% of the total:

Mushroom and truffle production – 2019
Country(millions of tonnes)
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 8.94
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 0.47
Flag of the United States (23px).png  United States 0.38
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 0.36
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 0.30
World11.90
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations [24]

Safety concerns

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw. [25] Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death. [25] [26] [27] Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification (some bolstered by artificial intelligence), these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned. [28]

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita , particularly Amanita phalloides , the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning. Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time, and only small quantities should be consumed in case of individual allergies or reactions. Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals, including arsenic and iron, sometimes in lethal concentrations. [29] On the other hand, some cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of slightly poisonous mushrooms enough to be consumed as survival food.[ citation needed ]

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis , with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin. Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.

Nutrition

White mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 117 kJ (28 kcal)
5.3 g
Fat
0.5 g
2.2 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
0 μg
Thiamine (B1)
8%
0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
23%
0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)
28%
4.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
44%
2.2 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
18 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Choline
4%
19.9 mg
Vitamin D
3%
21 IU
Vitamin E
0%
0 mg
Vitamin K
0%
0 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
0%
6 mg
Copper
56%
0.5 mg
Iron
9%
1.7 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
4%
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
7%
87 mg
Potassium
12%
356 mg
Selenium
24%
13.4 μg
Zinc
8%
0.9 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water91.1 g
Link to Full USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults. [30]

Higher mushroom consumption has been associated with lower risk of breast cancer. [31] As of 2021, mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. [32]

A commonly eaten mushroom is the white mushroom (Agaricus bisporus). In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving, Agaricus mushrooms provide 92 kilojoules (22 kilocalories) of food energy and are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 0.3% fat. They contain high levels of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, with moderate content of phosphorus (see table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of essential nutrients. Although cooking by boiling lowers mushroom water content only 1%, the contents per 100 grams for several nutrients increase appreciably, especially for dietary minerals.

The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light, even after harvesting and processed into dry powder. [33] [34]

Vitamin D

NameChemical compositionStructure
Vitamin D1 ergocalciferol with lumisterol, 1:1 [35]
Vitamin D2 ergocalciferol (made from ergosterol) Ergocalciferol.svg
Vitamin D3 cholecalciferol (made from 7-Dehydrocholesterol in the skin). Cholecalciferol.svg

When exposed to UV light before or after harvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D 2. [33] [34] This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D3 is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the FDA's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much. [33] Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D2. [34]

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms is ergocalciferol, or vitamin D2. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D3, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D2 has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements, vitamin D3 is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.

Uses

Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prized truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers, and are sometimes available at farmers' markets or other local grocers. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh when in season, and many species are also sold dried.

Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be correctly identified. Accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible poisoning. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.

History

Mycophagy /maɪˈkɒfədʒi/ , the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. Edible mushroom species have been found in association with 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile. Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom. The Chinese value mushrooms for their supposed medicinal properties as well as for food. Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat. [36] The Forme of Cury , a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth. [37]

Culinary

Cooking

Mushrooms may be cooked before consumption to improve texture and lower trace levels of toxic hydrazines. Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Mushrooms do not go mushy with long term cooking because the chitin that gives most of the structure to a mushroom does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F) which is not reached in any normal cooking. [38] [39]

Storage

Mushrooms will usually last a few days, longer if refrigerated. Mushrooms can be frozen, but are best cooked first. They can also be dried or pickled.

In traditional medicine

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments. [40] Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine [41] for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy. [42] [43]

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K [44] or lentinan. [45] Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy. [46] [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom</span> Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus

A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycology</span> Branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their taxonomy, genetics, biochemical properties, and use by humans. Fungi can be a source of tinder, food, traditional medicine, as well as entheogens, poison, and infection. Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases. The two disciplines are closely related, because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puffball</span> Fungus

Puffballs are a type of fungus featuring a ball-shaped fruit body that bursts on contact or impact, releasing a cloud of dust-like spores into the surrounding area. Puffballs belong to the division Basidiomycota and encompass several genera, including Calvatia, Calbovista and Lycoperdon. The puffballs were previously treated as a taxonomic group called the Gasteromycetes or Gasteromycetidae, but they are now known to be a polyphyletic assemblage.

<i>Agaricus bisporus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the cultivated mushroom, is a basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It is cultivated in more than 70 countries and is one of the most commonly and widely consumed mushrooms in the world. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the mature state, such as chestnut, portobello, portabellini, button and champignon de Paris.

<i>Boletus edulis</i> Species of mushroom, widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere

Boletus edulis is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus Boletus. Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere across Europe, Asia, and North America, it does not occur naturally in the Southern Hemisphere, although it has been introduced to southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. Several closely related European mushrooms formerly thought to be varieties or forms of B. edulis have been shown using molecular phylogenetic analysis to be distinct species, and others previously classed as separate species are conspecific with this species. The western North American species commonly known as the California king bolete is a large, darker-coloured variant first formally identified in 2007.

The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia (basidiomycetes) or paraphyses (ascomycetes). Cystidia are often important for microscopic identification. The subhymenium consists of the supportive hyphae from which the cells of the hymenium grow, beneath which is the hymenophoral trama, the hyphae that make up the mass of the hymenophore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom poisoning</span> Harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom

Mushroom poisoning is poisoning resulting from the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. Symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agaricaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Agaricaceae are a family of basidiomycete fungi and include the genus Agaricus, as well as basidiomycetes previously classified in the families Tulostomataceae, Lepiotaceae, and Lycoperdaceae.

<i>Calvatia gigantea</i> Species of mushroom

Calvatia gigantea, commonly known in English as the giant puffball, is a puffball mushroom commonly found in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests in late summer and autumn. It is found in temperate areas throughout the world.

<i>Amanita caesarea</i> Species of fungus

Amanita caesarea, commonly known as Caesar's mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus Amanita, native to southern Europe and North Africa. While it was first described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772, this mushroom was a known favorite of early rulers of the Roman Empire.

<i>Suillus luteus</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae native to Eurasia

Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus, and the type species of the genus Suillus. A common fungus native all across Eurasia from Ireland to Korea, it has been introduced widely elsewhere, including North and South America, southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English-speaking countries, its names refer to the brown cap, which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions. The fungus, initially described as Boletus luteus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is now classified in a different fungus family as well as genus. Suillus luteus is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms. It is commonly prepared and eaten in soups, stews or fried dishes. The slime coating, however, may cause indigestion if not removed before eating. It is often sold as a dried mushroom.

<i>Chalciporus piperatus</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America

Chalciporus piperatus, commonly known as the peppery bolete, is a small pored mushroom of the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America. It has been recorded under introduced trees in Brazil, and has become naturalised in Tasmania and spread under native Nothofagus cunninghamii trees. A small bolete, the fruit body has a 1.6–9 cm orange-fawn cap with cinnamon to brown pores underneath, and a 4–9.5 cm high by 0.6–1.2 cm thick stipe. The flesh has a very peppery taste. The rare variety hypochryseus, found only in Europe, has yellow pores and tubes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungi of Australia</span>

The Fungi of Australia form an enormous and phenomenally diverse group, a huge range of freshwater, marine and terrestrial habitats with many ecological roles, for example as saprobes, parasites and mutualistic symbionts of algae, animals and plants, and as agents of biodeterioration. Where plants produce, and animals consume, the fungi recycle, and as such they ensure the sustainability of ecosystems.

<i>Agaricus campestris</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus campestris is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated A. bisporus. A. campestris is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.

<i>Lactarius blennius</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius blennius is a medium-sized mushroom of the genus Lactarius found commonly in beech forests in Europe, where it is mycorrhizal, favouring the European beech. It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries. Though its colour and size vary, it is distinctive because it is slimy when wet and exudes copious amounts of milk. It has been the subject of some chemical research, and it can be used to produce pigments and blennins. Blennins, some of which have shown potential medical application, are derived from lactarane, a chemical so named because of their association with Lactarius. The edibility of L. blennius is uncertain, with different mycologists suggesting that it is edible, inedible or even poisonous.

<i>Suillus variegatus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus variegatus, commonly called the velvet bolete or variegated bolete, is a species of edible mushroom in the genus Suillus. Like all bolete-like species it has tubes, and pores, instead of gills under its cap. The mushroom forms a mycorrhizal relationship with pine and occurs in North America and Eurasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild edible and medicinal plants of British Columbia</span>

There are numerous wild edible and medicinal plants in British Columbia that are used traditionally by First Nations peoples. These include seaweeds, rhizomes and shoots of flowering plants, berries, and fungi.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to fungi and mycology:

References

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