Hericium erinaceus

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Hericium erinaceus
Lion's-mane mushroom imported from iNaturalist photo 176790519 on 21 March 2024.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Russulales
Family: Hericiaceae
Genus: Hericium
Species:
H. erinaceus
Binomial name
Hericium erinaceus
(Bull.) Persoon (1797)
Synonyms
  • Hydnum erinaceusBull. (1781)
  • Clavaria erinaceus
  • Dryodon erinaceus
Information icon.svg
Teeth icon.png Teeth on hymenium
No cap icon.svgNo distinct cap
NA cap icon.svg Hymenium attachment is not applicable
NA cap icon.svgLacks a stipe
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngEdibility is choice

Hericium erinaceus, commonly known as lion's mane mushroom, yamabushitake, bearded tooth fungus, bearded hedgehog, or old man's beard, [1] is an edible mushroom belonging to the tooth fungus group. [2] Native to North America, Europe, and Asia, it can be identified by its long spines (longer than 1 centimetre or 1⁄2 inch), occurrence on hardwoods, and tendency to grow a single clump of dangling spines. The fruit bodies can be harvested for culinary use.

Contents

H. erinaceus can be mistaken for other species of Hericium , which grow across the same range. In the wild, these mushrooms are common during late summer and fall on hardwoods, particularly American beech and maple. Usually H. erinaceus is considered saprophytic, as it mostly feeds on dead trees. [3] It can also be found on living trees, so it may be a tree parasite. This could indicate an endophytic habitat. [3] Outside of cultivation, lion's mane is usually associated with a tree wound and causes a white pocket rot. Decayed tissue becomes spongy and eventually disintegrates to form a cavity. The distinctive fruiting bodies (basidiocarps) generally appear near the edges of old wounds in the fall. [4]

Description

The fruit bodies of H. erinaceus are large, irregular bulbous tubercules. They are 5–40 centimetres (2–15+1⁄2 inches) in diameter, [5] and are dominated by crowded, hanging, spore-producing spines, which are 1–5 cm (1⁄2–2 in) long or longer. [6] [7]

The hyphal system is monomitic, amyloid, and composed of thin- to thick-walled hyphae that are approximately 3–15  μm (microns) wide. The hyphae also contain clamped septa and gloeoplerous elements (filled with oily, resinous substances), which can come into the hymenium as gloeocystidia.

The basidia are 25–40 μm long and 5–7 μm wide, contain four spores each and possess a basal clamp. The white amyloid spores measure approximately 5–7 μm in length and 4–5 μm in width. The spore shape is described as subglobose to short ellipsoid and the spore surface is smooth to finely roughened. [5] [6]

Development

The fruit bodies of H. erinaceus are mainly produced annually from August to November in Europe. [8] It was observed that H. erinaceus could fruit intermittently for 20 years on the same dead tree. It is hypothesized that H. erinaceus can survive for 40 years. [5] The mating system of H. erinaceus species found in the U.S. was shown to be bifactorially heterothallic. [9]

The monokaryotic mycelium growth of H. erinaceus is slower than dikaryotic growth and only a relatively low percentage of monokaryotic cultures yield fruitbodies. Monokaryotic fruitbodies are also smaller than dikaryotic fruitbodies. [5] The monokaryotic mycelium was found to produce fusoid to subglobose chlamydospores of 6–8 x 8–10 μm size. These spores can stay viable for more than seven years and be stored under anaerobic conditions.[ citation needed ] Chlamydospore germination requires 30 to 52 hours, with a germination success rate of 32 to 54%. [9]

Spore production is highest at midday, relative to temperature increase and a decrease of relative humidity. Daily trends toward lower relative humidity can favor sporulation, however, levels of relative humidity that are too low do not favor high total spore production. [10]

Mycochemistry

H. erinaceus contains diverse phytochemicals, including polysaccharides, such as β-glucan, as well as hericenones and erinacines. [3] From its essential oil, 77 aroma and flavor compounds were identified, including hexadecanoic acid (26% of total oil composition), linoleic acid (13%), phenylacetaldehyde (9%) and benzaldehyde (3%), and other oils, such as 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2-ethylpyrazine and 2,6-diethylpyrazine. [11] Low concentrations of ergosterol are present. [3]

Similar species

Similar species include Hericium americanum and Hericium coralloides . [7]

Etymology

Both the Latin genus name Hericium and the species name erinaceus mean 'hedgehog' in Latin. This is also reflected by the German name, Igel-Stachelbart (literally, 'hedgehog goatee'), and some of its common English names, such as bearded hedgehog and hedgehog mushroom. [3] It is known in Japan as yamabushitake (Kanji: 山伏茸, Katakana: ヤマブシタケ) in reference to the yamabushi or mountain ascetics of the syncretistic religion known as Shugendo; while in Chinese it is known as hóutóugū (simplified Chinese :猴头菇; traditional Chinese :猴頭菇; Jyutping :hau4 tou4 gu1) meaning "monkey head mushroom", and in Europe and the United States as lion's mane. [12]

Distribution and habitat

Hericium species can be found throughout the northern hemisphere. [3] H. erinaceus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. Its production is widespread within Asia, mostly using extensive production practices on wood logs or stumps. [3]

Despite its higher prevalence in Asia, H. erinaceus was first described scientifically in North America. Its production there occurs only on a small scale. Most of it is intensive indoor production with only a few small outdoor sites where log cultivation is practiced. Three Hericium species can be found in eastern North America, one being H. erinaceus, the other two H. americanum and H. coralloides. [13] H. erinaceus hosts in North America include maple, ash, oaks, and eucalyptus. [4] In California, lion's mane has been found on coast live oak, canyon live oak, interior live oak, California black oak, blue oak, and valley oak. [4]

Although H. erinaceus is native to Europe, it has been red listed in 13 European countries due to poor germination and establishment.[ citation needed ] It is able to withstand cold temperatures and frost conditions. [14]

Ecology

Disease

Brennandania lambi (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) is a mite pest of fungi culture in China. This mite can develop and reproduce on the mycelium of H. erinaceus. Farm hygiene and heating treatments are the most important pest management strategies that should be followed to counter this acarus. [15]

Competition with other fungi

Lion's-mane mushroom imported from iNaturalist photo 29576097 on 21 March 2024.jpg

Hericium species are good competitors against other wood colonisers. They show the ability to maintain their place on dead wood, also when confronted with secondary colonizers such as Trametes versicolor and Stereum hirsutum . [5] Hericium erinaceus has shown to be slightly more competitive than other fungi tooth species, including Creolophus cirrhatus and Hericium coralloides. [16]

Conservation

H. erinaceus is scarce and threatened and is one of only four fungi to have the highest level of legal protection in the UK, making both picking and sale of the fungus illegal. It was added to the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 in 1998. [17]

Cultivation

In fungi cultivation, fungal strains are analogous to plant varieties in crop breeding. [13] Fungal strains comprise clonal descendants of a single isolation from one fungal colony in a pure culture. [18] Hericium spp. grow in the wild in North America, Europe, and Asia. Although there is considerable scientific research about them, they are not commonly industrially produced. Accordingly, there are few commercially available strains in the U.S. or Europe and little or no breeding for higher yield or other favorable traits has occurred. [13] Production trials in Egypt report yields of H. erinaceus averaging at 165 g per 1 kg medium. [19]

Substrate requirements

As a saprophyte that occurs on dead wood, H. erinaceus requires adequate substrate factors, including suitable carbon and nitrogen sources, a certain pH value and ideal carbon/nitrogen ratio. [20] [21]

Many different substrates have been used successfully for culitivation of this mushroom. Depending on the type of cultivation, the substrate can be either solid (artificial log) or liquid (submerged culture and deep submerged culture).

The solid substrate is most commonly a mixture of sawdust of hardwood or conifer containing different complements that may include wheat bran, wheat straw, soybean meal, corn meal, rice bran, and rice straw. For example, H. erinaceus strains grow on beech sawdust substrate enriched with wheat bran (20%), rye grain (25%), soybean meal (7%), rapeseed meal (10%), or meat-osseous flour (6%). [19]

An example of a liquid substrate composition can be glucose for the carbon source, soybean powder, corn powder, and wheat bran powder as a complex nitrogen source. [21] The pH values most suitable for the favorable growth of H. erinaceus were in the range of 5.0–9.0, with pH 6.0 as optimal. [22]

Climate requirements

Hericium erinaceus requires a humid environment for its growth: 85 to 90% of relative humidity in the air. [5] The incubation temperature most suitable for the mycelial growth of H. erinaceus was found to be 25 °C, [22] and the optimum temperature for vegetative growth was 26 °C. [22] H. erinaceus is unable to grow with a water potential lower than -5 Mpa. [14]

Techniques

The artificial cultivation of H. erinaceus was first reported in China in 1988.[ citation needed ] It is cultivated using artificial logs, bottles, and polypropylene bags. However, this type of artificial cultivation is not suitable for industrialized production due to its low yield and long cultivation cycles. [21]

Submerged culture is a type of artificial cultivation of H. erinaceus whereby the fungus is grown in a liquid medium. Using this method, a large number of mycelia can be obtained quickly. [21] Bioactive compounds can be sourced from the fruiting bodies, submerged-cultivated mycelial biomass, or liquid-cultivated broth. Growers optimize the culture medium composition to obtain simultaneously high yields of H. erinaceus mycelial biomass, exopolysaccharides, and polysaccharides.[ citation needed ] Submerged fermentation is preferable for the production of mycelial biomass and biologically active metabolites in order to produce a more uniform biomass and extract products. [23]

Growth regulators, such as 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and gibberellin, were observed to have an advantageous effect on spore germination. [24] Other technologies, such as red and green laser light of low intensity, stimulated spore germination as well as the vegetative growth of mycelium. [25] Argon and helium lasers also contributed to the acceleration of fruit body development by 36–51%. [5] [26]

Wild strains

Wild strains of Hericium spp. can be isolated and cultivated by first gathering fruiting bodies from fallen trees in the natural habitat. The fruiting bodies can then be opened to attain pieces of their inner spore-producing tissue. This tissue is then placed onto Petri dishes with agar to cultivate fungal colonies at 25 °C. After several transfers to new Petri dishes to verify the purity of the strain, it can be kept at −80 °C for long-term storage. [27]

Culinary

Rock cod with grilled Hericium erinaceus Beholder - June 2022 - Sarah Stierch 05.jpg
Rock cod with grilled Hericium erinaceus

H. erinaceus produces edible fruiting bodies that are used as food and in traditional medicine. [3] H. erinaceus is common in gourmet cooking, with young specimens considered the best. [28] Alongside shiitake (Lentinus edodes) and oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) mushrooms, H. erinaceus is used as a specialty mushroom in recipes. [27] [29]

H. erinaceus fruiting bodies contain 57% carbohydrates (8% as dietary fiber), 4% fat, and 22% protein. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom</span> Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus

A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycelium</span> Vegetative part of a fungus

Mycelium is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in Armillaria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edible mushroom</span> Edible fungi fruit bodies

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. Mushrooms that have a particularly desirable taste are described as "choice". Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.

<i>Tremella fuciformis</i> Species of edible fungus

Tremella fuciformis is a species of fungus; it produces white, frond-like, gelatinous basidiocarps. It is widespread, especially in the tropics, where it can be found on the dead branches of broadleaf trees. This fungus is commercially cultivated and is one of the most popular fungi in the cuisine and medicine of China. T. fuciformis is commonly known as snow fungus, snow ear, silver ear fungus, white jelly mushroom, and white cloud ears.

Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods, medicine, construction materials and other products. A mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi.

<i>Phallus indusiatus</i> Widespread species of stinkhorn fungus

Phallus indusiatus, commonly called the basket stinkhorn, bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn, bridal veil, or veiled lady, is a fungus in the family Phallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and is found in southern Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where it grows in woodlands and gardens in rich soil and well-rotted woody material. The fruit body of the fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on a stalk and a delicate lacy "skirt", or indusium, that hangs from beneath the cap and reaches nearly to the ground. First described scientifically in 1798 by French botanist Étienne Pierre Ventenat, the species has often been referred to a separate genus Dictyophora along with other Phallus species featuring an indusium. P. indusiatus can be distinguished from other similar species by differences in distribution, size, color, and indusium length.

<i>Hydnum</i> Genus of fungi

Hydnum is a genus of fungi in the family Hydnaceae. They are notable for their unusual spore-bearing structures of teeth rather than gills. The best known are the edible species Hydnum repandum and H. rufescens. There are no known toxic varieties of Hydnum. Widely regarded as important maintainers of forest ecosystems, the Hydnum genus is known to have ectomycorrhizal relationships with multiple plant families. Hydnum has many brittle, white teeth from which the spores drop. Some species have teeth which hang from ascending branches, while other species have teeth which project downwards from the undersurfaces of dead wood. Most Hydnum species are safe to eat, and contain many fatty acids and antioxidants.

<i>Crucibulum</i> Genus of fungi

Crucibulum is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of falling drops of rain. The "eggs" inside the bird's nests are hard waxy shells containing spores, and tend to stick to whatever nearby herbage they land on, thus increasing the odds of being consumed and dispersed by herbivorous animals. Members of this genus are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic matter, and are typically found growing on decayed wood and wood debris. The three known Crucibulum species are distinguished from other genera of the Nidulariaceae by their relatively simple funiculus – a cord of hyphae that connects the peridiole to the exterior of the bird's nest.

<i>Cyathus</i> Genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae

Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae, which is a family collectively known as the bird's nest fungi. They are given this name as they resemble tiny bird's nests filled with "eggs" – structures large enough to have been mistaken in the past for seeds. However, these are now known to be reproductive structures containing spores. The "eggs", or peridioles, are firmly attached to the inner surface of this fruit body by an elastic cord of mycelia known as a funiculus. The 45 species are widely distributed throughout the world and some are found in most countries, although a few exist in only one or two locales. Cyathus stercoreus is considered endangered in a number of European countries. Some species of Cyathus are also known as splash cups, which refers to the fact that falling raindrops can knock the peridioles out of the open-cup fruit body. The internal and external surfaces of this cup may be ridged longitudinally ; this is one example of a taxonomic characteristic that has traditionally served to distinguish between species.

<i>Astraeus hygrometricus</i> Cosmopolitan species of fungus in the family Diplocystaceae.

Astraeus hygrometricus, commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar, the barometer earthstar, or the false earthstar, is a species of fungus in the family Diplocystaceae. Young specimens resemble a puffball when unopened. In maturity, the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star-like manner. The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees, especially in sandy soils. A. hygrometricus was previously thought to have a cosmopolitan distribution, though it is now thought to be restricted to Southern Europe, and Astraeus are common in temperate and tropical regions. Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic (water-absorbing) and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity, then close them up again in drier conditions. The rays have an irregularly cracked surface, while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top. The gleba is white initially, but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature. The spores are reddish-brown and roughly spherical with minute warts, measuring 7.5–11 micrometers in diameter.

<i>Hericium</i> Genus of fungi

Hericium is a genus of edible mushrooms in the family Hericiaceae. Species in this genus are white and fleshy and grow on dead or dying wood; fruiting bodies resemble a mass of fragile icicle-like spines that are suspended from either a branched supporting framework or from a tough, unbranched cushion of tissue. This distinctive structure has earned Hericium species a variety of common names—monkey's head, lion's mane, and bear's head are examples. Taxonomically, this genus was previously placed within the order Aphyllophorales, but recent molecular studies now place it in the Russulales.

<i>Hygrophorus agathosmus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus agathosmus, commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815; Fries gave it its current name in 1838. A widespread species, it is distributed in the United States, Europe, Africa, and India, and is found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests. The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, waxy gills, a dry stem, and the distinct odor of bitter almonds. An edible but bland-tasting mushroom, extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans.

<i>Hericium abietis</i> Species of fungus

Hericium abietis, commonly known as the bear's head, conifer coral hericium, or western coral hedgehog, is an edible mushroom in the tooth fungus group. It grows on conifer stumps or logs in North America, producing a cream white fruit body up to 10–75 cm (4–30 in) tall and wide. It fruits from after the start of the fall rains to mid-season.

<i>Galiella rufa</i> Species of fungus

Galiella rufa, commonly known as the rubber cup, the rufous rubber cup, or the hairy rubber cup, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae. It produces cup-shaped fruit bodies with the texture of tough, gelatinous rubber, with a rough, blackish-brown, felt-like outer surface and a smooth reddish-brown inner surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hericenone</span> Class of chemical compounds

Hericenones is a class of benzaldehydes that are isolates of the fruiting body of Hericium erinaceum that promote nerve growth factor synthesis in vitro.

<i>Hericium americanum</i> Species of fungus

Hericium americanum, commonly known as the bear's head tooth fungus is an edible mushroom in the tooth fungus group. It was described as new to science in 1984 by Canadian mycologist James Herbert Ginns.

<i>Pholiota adiposa</i> Species of fungus

Pholiota adiposa is a slimy, scaly, yellow-brown mushroom. It is edible, and found in North America, Europe, and Asia. It grows parasitically or saprotrophically, most often on beech species, fruiting in bunches between August and November. Several compounds produced by this mushroom, for example methyl gallate, are of interest for their medicinal properties.

<i>Rhizopus stolonifer</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus stolonifer is commonly known as black bread mold. It is a member of Zygomycota and considered the most important species in the genus Rhizopus. It is one of the most common fungi in the world and has a global distribution although it is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It is a common agent of decomposition of stored foods. Like other members of the genus Rhizopus, R. stolonifer grows rapidly, mostly in indoor environments.

<i>Hericium novae-zealandiae</i> Species of fungus

HerIcium novae-zealandiae is a species of fungus in the Hericiaceae family. Formerly classified as Hericium coralloides which shares an almost identical morphology. Being saprotrophic, H. novae-zealandiae can be observed growing from dead, decaying wood. Also known as pekepekekiore, it is endemic to New Zealand and was consumed by indigenous Māori.

<i>Sphaerosporella brunnea</i> Fungi species

Sphaerosporella brunnea is a pryophilic species of small ascomycete cup fungi that commonly makes its habitat on burned substrates. Sphaerosporella brunnea is synonymous with Sphaerosporella hinnulea, Trichophaea brunnea, Peziza brunnea and numerous other fungi due to previously conceived variations in the fungi's habitat, substrate, and color ranging from dark brown to a light yellow-orange, however these differences were soon found to be negligible. S. brunnea is ectomycorrhizal, suspected to be saprobic, and is thought to be commonly widely distributed in Australia, Asia, the eastern United States and parts of Europe, such as Germany, Austria, Poland, the United Kingdom, and Sweden. This minuscule fungi is a detrimental contaminant in black truffle orchards, where Sphaerosporella brunnea seems to compete and inhibit the infection and growth of Tuber fungi, causing economic loss due to decreased infection rates of Tuber species.

References

  1. ↑ Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi (Second ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN   978-0-89815-169-5.
  2. ↑ "Reforestation: Traditional Methods Have to Change". The Sierra Forest Voice. Vol. 8, no. 2. 2015. Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Lion's mane mushroom". Drugs.com. 23 November 2020. Archived from the original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
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  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sokół, Sławomir; Golak-Siwulska, Iwona; Sobieralski, Krzysztof; Siwulski, Marek; Górka, Katarzyna (2016-01-29). "Biology, cultivation, and medicinal functions of the mushroom Hericium erinaceum". Acta Mycologica. 50 (2). doi: 10.5586/am.1069 . ISSN   2353-074X. Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
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  11. ↑ Miyazawa, Mitsuo; Matsuda, Naoki; Tamura, Naotaka; Ishikawa, Ryuuzou (8 December 2011). "Characteristic Flavor of Volatile Oil from Dried Fruiting Bodies of Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers". Journal of Essential Oil Research. 20 (5): 420–423. doi:10.1080/10412905.2008.9700046. ISSN   1041-2905. S2CID   94616378. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  12. ↑ "Hericium erinaceus - an overview". ScienceDirect . 2016. Archived from the original on 2022-12-20. Retrieved 2022-12-20.
  13. 1 2 3 "Lion's Mane: A new candidate for profitable forest mushroom cultivation". Cornell Small Farms. 2015-04-06. Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  14. 1 2 Boddy, Lynne; Crockatt, Martha E.; Ainsworth, A. Martyn (2011-04-01). "Ecology of Hericium cirrhatum, H. coralloides and H. erinaceus in the UK". Fungal Ecology. Conservation underground: Fungi in a changing world. 4 (2): 163–173. doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2010.10.001. ISSN   1754-5048.
  15. ↑ Wu, Jufang; Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (March 1993). "Host feeding, damage and control of the mushroom pest, Brennandania lambi (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) in China". Experimental and Applied Acarology. 17 (3): 233–240. doi:10.1007/BF00118440. ISSN   0168-8162. S2CID   22308405.
  16. ↑ Wald, Paul; Pitkkänen, Sini; Boddy, Lynne (December 2004). "Interspecific interactions between the rare tooth fungi Creolophus cirrhatus, Hericium erinaceus and H. coralloides and other wood decay species in agar and wood". Mycological Research. 108 (12): 1447–1457. doi:10.1017/S0953756204001340. PMID   15757181. Archived from the original on 2022-01-21. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  17. ↑ "Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981". Archived from the original on 2023-09-20. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
  18. ↑ Dijkshoorn, L.; Ursing, B.M.; Ursing, J.B. (2000-05-01). "Strain, clone and species: comments on three basic concepts of bacteriology". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 49 (5): 397–401. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-49-5-397 . ISSN   0022-2615. PMID   10798550.
  19. 1 2 Hassan, F.R.H (2007). "Cultivation of the Monkey Head Mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) in Egypt" (PDF). Journal of Applied Sciences Research. 3 (10): 1229–1233. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  20. ↑ Gonkhom, Didsanutda; Luangharn, Thatsanee; Hyde, Kevin D.; Stadler, Marc; Thongklang, Naritsada (2022-08-31). "Optimal conditions for mycelial growth of medicinal mushrooms belonging to the genus Hericium". Mycological Progress. 21 (9). doi: 10.1007/s11557-022-01829-6 . S2CID   251994082.
  21. 1 2 3 4 He, Xirui; Wang, Xiaoxiao; Fang, Jiacheng; Chang, Yu; Ning, Ning; Guo, Hao; Huang, Linhong; Huang, Xiaoqiang; Zhao, Zefeng (2017-04-01). "Structures, biological activities, and industrial applications of the polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus (Lion's Mane) mushroom: A review". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 97: 228–237. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.040. ISSN   0141-8130. PMID   28087447. Archived from the original on 2023-05-11. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  22. 1 2 3 Nguyen, Bich Thuy Thi; Ngo, Nghien Xuan; Le, Ve Van; Nguyen, Luyen Thi; Tran, Anh Dong; Nguyen, Lam Hai Thi (2018-10-19). "Identification of Optimal Culture Conditions for Mycelial Growth and Cultivation of Monkey Head Mushrooms (Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: fr.) Pers)". Vietnam Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1 (2): 117–126. doi: 10.31817/vjas.2018.1.2.01 . ISSN   2588-1299. Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  23. ↑ "Impact of Substrate Volume on Oyster Mushroom Fruiting Bodies Production". Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 51 (2): 154–169. 2020-05-01. doi: 10.21608/ajas.2020.117203 . ISSN   2356-9840.
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  26. ↑ Poyedinok, Natalia L.; Buchalo, Asja S.; Negriyko, Anatoliy M.; Potemkina, Janna V.; Mykchaylova, Oksana B. (2003). "The Action of Argon and Helium-Neon Laser Radiation on Growth and Fructification of Culinary-Medicinal Mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.:Fr.) Kumm., Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer, and Hericium erinaceus(Bull.:Fr.)Pers". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 5 (3): 8. doi:10.1615/InterJMedicMush.v5.i3.70. ISSN   1521-9437. Archived from the original on 2023-06-03. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  27. 1 2 Grace, Jeanne; Mudge, Kenneth W. (2015). "Production of Hericium sp. (Lion's Mane) mushrooms on totem logs in a forest farming system". Agroforestry Systems. 89 (3): 549–556. doi:10.1007/s10457-015-9790-1. ISSN   0167-4366. S2CID   15267536. Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
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  29. ↑ Royse, Daniel J. (2010-07-29). "Speciality Mushrooms and Their Cultivation". Horticultural Reviews: 59–97. doi:10.1002/9780470650622.ch2. ISBN   978-0-470-65062-2 . Retrieved 2020-11-06.
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