Rye

Last updated

Rye
Ear of rye.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Secale
Species:
S. cereale
Binomial name
Secale cereale
L.
Synonyms

Secale fragile M.Bieb.

Rye (Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from eastern and northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds, and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cereals wheat and barley. Rye grain is used for bread, beer, rye whiskey, and animal fodder. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle-ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Around half of world production is in Europe; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale, combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist .

Contents

Origins

Wild rye Wild rye.jpg
Wild rye

The rye genus Secale is in the grass tribe Triticeae, which contains other cereals such as barley (Hordeum) and wheat (Triticum). [1]

The generic name Secale, related to Italian segale and French seigle meaning "rye", is of unknown origin but may derive from a Balkan language. [2] The English name rye derives from Old English ryge, related to Dutch rogge, German Roggen, Russian rozh, again all with the same meaning. [3]

Rye is one of several cereals that grow wild in the Levant, central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago. [4] However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff. [5]

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük, [6] [7] but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE. [8]

It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right. [9] Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain. [10] Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation". [11] He said it was mixed with spelt "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach". [12]

Description

Rye is a tall grass grown for its seeds; it can be an annual or a biennial. Depending on environmental conditions and variety it reaches 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in height. Its leaves are blue-green, long, and pointed. The seeds are carried in a curved head or spike some 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8 to 5.9 in) long. It is composed of many spikelets, each of which holds two small flowers; the spikelets alternate left and right up the head. [13]

Cultivation

1878 oil painting A Rye Field by Ivan Shishkin Ivan Shishkin - Rozh' - Google Art Project.jpg
1878 oil painting A Rye Field by Ivan Shishkin

Since the Middle Ages, people have cultivated rye widely in Central and Eastern Europe. It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the France–Germany border and north of Hungary. In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands. [14]

Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or peat. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains do. Rye will survive with snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Most farmers grow winter ryes, which are planted and begin to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop and produce their crop. [15] Winter rye, planted in the autumn, grows rapidly, allowing it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated. [16]

The physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time. [17] Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying. [17]

Rye is harvested like wheat with a combine harvester, which cuts the plants, threshes and winnows the grain, and releases the straw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local silos or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of mechanised agriculture, rye harvesting was a manual task performed with scythes or sickles. [18] [19]

Agroecology

Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used as a cover crop to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds. [20]

Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy clay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. [21] Rye can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production of antifreeze polypeptides (different from the antifreeze polypeptides produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye. [22]

Rye is a common, unwanted invader of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat. [23]

Pests and diseases

The poisonous ergot fungus growing on rye Claviceps purpurea 47424140.jpg
The poisonous ergot fungus growing on rye

The nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci and a variety of herbivorous insects can seriously affect plant health. [24]

Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus. [25] [26] Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as ergotism. Ergotism can cause both physical and mental harm, including convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that have depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics of this condition. Such epidemics have been found to correlate with periods of frequent witch trials, such as the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692. [15] Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated the disease, but contaminated flour may end up in bread and other food products if the ergot is not removed before milling. [27]

After an absence of 60 years, stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici) has returned to Europe in the 2020s. [28] Areas affected include Germany, Russia (Western Siberia), Spain, and Sweden. [28]

Production and consumption

Exports by country (2014) 2014 Rye Countries Export Treemap.png
Exports by country (2014)
Map of global production. Rye is grown mainly across Central and Northern Europe into Russia. RyeYield.png
Map of global production. Rye is grown mainly across Central and Northern Europe into Russia.

Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, and eastwards into central and northern Russia. Rye is also grown in North America, in South America including Argentina, in Oceania (Australia]] and New Zealand), in Turkey, and in northern China. Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, as of 2022; for instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 Mt in 1992 to 2.2 Mt in 2022. [30] [31]

Top rye producers (in metric tons)
Producer2022 [31] 2020 [31] 2018 [31] 2016 [31] 2014 [31]
Flag of Europe.svg  European Union 7,450,9208,939,5106,141,0407,400,6868,890,726
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 3,132,3003,513,4002,201,4003,173,8003,854,400
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 2,337,1302,929,9302,126,5702,199,5782,792,593
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 2,178,8082,377,6291,916,0562,547,8783,280,759
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 750,0001,050,702502,505650,908867,075
Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark 691,470699,370476,590577,200677,800
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 520,177487,800236,400436,000217,500
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 500,767512,591504,698545,657520,000
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 314,030456,780393,780391,560478,000
Flag of the United States (23px).png  United States 312,460292,930214,180290,379182,610
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 242,20772,45095,36648,56355,899
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina 225,510221,20186,09860,67652,130
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain 188,880407,620404,280377,355290,970
World total13,143,05515,036,81210,702,48212,999,14415,204,158

World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016 was $186M [32] compared with $30.1B for wheat. [33]

Poland consumes the most rye per person at 32.4 kg (71 lb) per capita (2009). Nordic and Baltic countries are also very high. The EU in general is around 5.6 kg (12 lb) per capita. The entire world only consumes 0.9 kg (2 lb) per capita. [34]

Nutritional value

Rye
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,414 kJ (338 kcal)
75.86 g
Sugars 0.98 g
Dietary fiber 15.1 g
Fat
1.63 g
10.34 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
25%
0.3 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
23%
0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)
25%
4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
20%
1 mg
Vitamin B6
18%
0.3 mg
Folate (B9)
10%
38 μg
Choline
5%
30 mg
Vitamin E
7%
1 mg
Vitamin K
5%
6 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
24 mg
Iron
17%
3 mg
Magnesium
26%
110 mg
Manganese
130%
3 mg
Phosphorus
27%
332 mg
Potassium
17%
510 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
27%
3 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water10.6 g
Selenium14 µg
Link to USDA Database Entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [35] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [36]

Raw rye contains 11% water, 76% carbohydrates, 10% protein, and 2% fat (table). A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference amount of rye provides 1,410 kilojoules (338 kilocalories) of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of essential nutrients, including dietary fiber, B vitamins, such as thiamine and niacin (each at 25% DV), and several dietary minerals. Highest micronutrient contents are for manganese (130% DV) and phosphorus (27% DV) (table).

Health effects

According to Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, consuming at least 4 grams (0.14 oz) per day of rye beta-glucan or 0.65 grams (0.023 oz) per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. [37] [38]

Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). [39] Consuming breakfast cereals containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. [40]

Health concerns

Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains glutens and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and wheat allergy, among others. [41] Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley. [42]

Ergotism is an illness that can result from eating rye and other grains infected by ergot fungi (which produce ergoline toxins in infected products). Although it is no longer a common illness because of modern food safety efforts, it was common before the 20th century, and remains a risk if food safety vigilance breaks down. [43]

Uses

Food and drink

Rye grain is refined into a flour high in gliadin but low in glutenin and rich in soluble fiber. Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. pericarp, testa and aleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight). [44] Rye bread, including pumpernickel, is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe. [45] [46] In Scandinavia, rye is widely used to make crispbread (Knäckebröd); in the Middle Ages it was a staple food in the region, and it remains popular in the 21st century. [47]

Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer. [13] The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beverage kvass is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt. [48]

Other uses

Rye is a useful forage crop in cool climates; it grows vigorously and provides plentiful fodder for grazing animals, or green manure to improve the soil. [49] It forms a good cover crop in winter with its rapid growth and deep roots. [50]

Rye straw is used as livestock bedding, despite the risk of ergot poisoning. [51] It is used on a small scale to make crafts such as corn dollies. [52] More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetener xylitol. [53]

Rye flour is mixed with linseed oil and iron oxide to make traditional Falun red paint, widely used as a house paint in Sweden. [54]

Production of hybrids

Grains of wheat, rye, and their hybrid, triticale. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat. Wheat, rye, triticale montage.jpg
Grains of wheat, rye, and their hybrid, triticale. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat.

Plant breeders, starting in the 19th century in Germany and Scotland, [55] but mainly from the 1950s, worked to develop a hybrid cereal with the best qualities of wheat and rye, now called triticale. Modern triticales are hexaploid with six sets of chromosomes, and are used to produce millions of tons of cereal annually. [56]

Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity, [57] [58] [59] which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example, the pollination abilities of wheat was improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increased the size of the wheat anther and the amount of pollen. [60] The 1R chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes. [61] Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat. [61] AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to both lodging and shattering. [62] Rye was the gene donor of Sr31 – a stem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat. [63]

The characteristics of S. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye, S. montanum , to produce S. cereanum , which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein. [64]

In human culture

A Roggenwolf, a carnivorous spirit of the rye fields, with sheaves of harvested rye, on the coat of arms of the Bartensleben family Roggenwolf and Rye Sheaves in coat of arms.jpg
A Roggenwolf, a carnivorous spirit of the rye fields, with sheaves of harvested rye, on the coat of arms of the Bartensleben family

In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist , a field spirit shaped like a wolf. [65] The Roggenwolf steals children and feeds on them. [66] The last grain heads are often left at their place as a sacrifice for the agricultural spirits. [67]

In contrast, the Roggenmuhme or Roggenmutter ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar, and may end in tips of igneous iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. The Roggenmuhme is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals; such as snakes, turtles, frogs and others. [68]

The classical scholar Carl A. P. Ruck writes that the Roggenmutter was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into the fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of the Roggenmutter". [69] The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known as Wulfzähne (wolf teeth). [69]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cereal</span> Grass that has edible grain

A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gluten</span> Group of cereal grain proteins

Gluten is a structural protein naturally found in certain cereal grains. The term gluten usually refers to a wheat grain's prolamins, specifically glutelin proteins, that naturally occur in many cereal grains, and which can trigger celiac disease in some people. The types of grains that contain gluten include all species of wheat, and barley, rye, and some cultivars of oat; moreover, cross hybrids of any of these cereal grains also contain gluten, e.g. triticale. Gluten makes up 75–85% of the total protein in bread wheat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat</span> Genus of grass cultivated for grain

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum ; the most widely grown is common wheat. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BC. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a caryopsis, a type of fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millet</span> Group of grasses (food grain)

Millets are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oat</span> Cool weather staple grain, animal feed

The oat, sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name. Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal, including as steel cut oats or rolled oats. Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as a green manure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flour</span> Cereal grains ground into powder

Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in both Central Europe and Northern Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Einkorn wheat</span> Primitive wheat

Einkorn wheat can refer either to a wild species of wheat (Triticum) or to its domesticated form. The wild form is T. boeoticum, and the domesticated form is T. monococcum. Einkorn is a diploid species of hulled wheat, with tough glumes ('husks') that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as "petit épeautre" in French, "Einkorn" in German, "einkorn" or "littlespelt" in English, "piccolo farro" in Italian and "escanda menor" in Spanish. The name refers to the fact that each spikelet contains only one grain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticale</span> Hybrid wheat/rye crop

Triticale is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary (first-cross) triticales. As a rule, triticale combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance of rye. Only recently has it been developed into a commercially viable crop. Depending on the cultivar, triticale can more or less resemble either of its parents. It is grown mostly for forage or fodder, although some triticale-based foods can be purchased at health food stores and can be found in some breakfast cereals.

<i>Secale</i> Genus of grasses

Secale is a genus of the grass tribe Triticeae, which is related to barley (Hordeum) and wheat (Triticum). The genus includes cultivated species such as rye as well as weedy and wild rye species. The best-known species of the genus is the cultivated rye, S. cereale, which is grown as a grain and forage crop. Wild and weedy rye species help provide a huge gene pool that can be used for improvement of the cultivated rye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emmer</span> Type of wheat

Emmer wheat or hulled wheat is a type of awned wheat. Emmer is a tetraploid. The domesticated types are Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum and T. t. conv. durum. The wild plant is called T. t. subsp. dicoccoides. The principal difference between the wild and the domestic forms is that the ripened seed head of the wild plant shatters and scatters the seed onto the ground, while in the domesticated emmer, the seed head remains intact, thus making it easier for humans to harvest the grain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ergot</span> Group of fungi of the genus Claviceps

Ergot or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus Claviceps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ergotism</span> Effect of long-term ergot poisoning

Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus—from the Latin clava "club" or clavus "nail" and -ceps for "head", i.e. the purple club-headed fungus—that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning, and Saint Anthony's fire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durum</span> Species of wheat used for food

Durum wheat, also called pasta wheat or macaroni wheat, is a tetraploid species of wheat. It is the second most cultivated species of wheat after common wheat, although it represents only 5% to 8% of global wheat production. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned. It is the predominant wheat that grows in the Middle East.

Secalin is a prolamin glycoprotein found in the grain rye, Secale cereale.

<i>Claviceps purpurea</i> Species of fungus

Claviceps purpurea is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and related cereal and forage plants. Consumption of grains or seeds contaminated with the survival structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium, can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals. C. purpurea most commonly affects outcrossing species such as rye, as well as triticale, wheat and barley. It affects oats only rarely.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat allergy</span> Medical condition

Wheat allergy is an allergy to wheat which typically presents itself as a food allergy, but can also be a contact allergy resulting from occupational exposure. Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves immunoglobulin E and mast cell response. Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat. Some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy is rare. Prevalence in adults was found to be 0.21% in a 2012 study in Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticeae</span> Tribe of grasses

Triticeae is a botanical tribe within the subfamily Pooideae of grasses that includes genera with many domesticated species. Major crop genera found in this tribe include wheat, barley, and rye; crops in other genera include some for human consumption, and others used for animal feed or rangeland protection. Among the world's cultivated species, this tribe has some of the most complex genetic histories. An example is bread wheat, which contains the genomes of three species with only one being a wheat Triticum species. Seed storage proteins in the Triticeae are implicated in various food allergies and intolerances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grain</span> Edible dry seed

A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.

<i>Secale vavilovii</i> Species of plant in the family Poaceae

Secale vavilovii is a species of grass, native to Turkey, the Transcaucasus, Iraq, and Iran. An annual, it is a crop wild relative of rye and is being studied for its resistance to Fusarium ear blight and Septoria leaf blotch.

<i>Secale sylvestre</i> Species of plant

Secale sylvestre is a wild relative of rye.

References

  1. ↑ Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; et al. (2017). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 55 (4): 259–290. doi:10.1111/jse.12262. ISSN   1674-4918.
  2. ↑ Walde, Alois; Hofmann, Johann Baptist (1954) "secale", in Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (in German), 3rd edition, volume 2, Heidelberg: Carl Winter, page 504
  3. ↑ "rye (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  4. ↑ Hillman, Gordon; Hedges, Robert; Moore, Andrew; Colledge, Susan; Pettitt, Paul (2001). "New evidence of Lateglacial cereal cultivation at Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates". The Holocene . 11 (4): 383–393. Bibcode:2001Holoc..11..383H. doi:10.1191/095968301678302823. S2CID   84930632. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
  5. ↑ Colledge, Sue; Conolly, James (2010). "Reassessing the evidence for the cultivation of wild crops during the Younger Dryas at Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria". Environmental Archaeology . 15 (2): 124–138. Bibcode:2010EnvAr..15..124C. doi:10.1179/146141010X12640787648504. S2CID   129087203.
  6. ↑ Hillman, Gordon (1978). "On the Origins of Domestic rye: Secale Cereale: The Finds from Aceramic Can Hasan III in Turkey". Anatolian Studies . 28: 157–174. doi:10.2307/3642748. JSTOR   3642748. S2CID   85225244. – via  JSTOR (subscription required)
  7. ↑ Sidhu, Jagdeep; Ramakrishnan, Sai Mukund; Shaukat, Ali; Amy, Bernado; Bai, Guihua; Sidrat, Abdullah; Ayana, Girma; Sehgal, Sunish (2019). "Assessing the genetic diversity and characterizing genomic regions conferring Tan Spot resistance in cultivated rye". PLOS ONE . 14 (3): e0214519. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1414519S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214519 . PMC   6438500 . PMID   30921415.
  8. ↑ Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN   978-0-19-954906-1 . Retrieved October 5, 2016– via Google Books.
  9. ↑ McElroy, J. Scott (2014). "Vavilovian Mimicry: Nikolai Vavilov and His Little-Known Impact on Weed Science". Weed Science . 62 (2): 207–216. doi: 10.1614/ws-d-13-00122.1 . S2CID   86549764.
  10. ↑ Gyulai, Ferenc (2014). "Archaeobotanical overview of rye (Secale Cereale L.) in the Carpathian-basin I. from the beginning until the Roman age". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science. 1 (2): 25–35. Archived from the original on December 31, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2016. page 26.
  11. ↑ Evans, L. T.; Peacock, W. J. (March 19, 1981). Wheat Science: Today and Tomorrow. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. ISBN   978-0-521-23793-2. Archived from the original on May 26, 2020. Retrieved November 15, 2015– via Google Books.
  12. ↑ Pliny the Elder (1855) [c. 77–79]. The Natural History. Translated by Bostock, John; Riley, H. T. London: Taylor and Francis (T&F). Book 18, Ch. 40. Archived from the original on January 6, 2017. Retrieved July 12, 2016– via Perseus Digital Library, Trufts University.
  13. 1 2 "Rye". PlantVillage. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  14. ↑ Behre, Karl-Ernst (1992). "The history of rye cultivation in Europe". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany . 1 (3). doi:10.1007/BF00191554. ISSN   0939-6314. S2CID   129518700. Archived from the original on March 23, 2022. Retrieved February 17, 2022.
  15. 1 2 Wong, George J. (1998). "Ergot of Rye: History". Botany 135 Syllabus. University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Botany Department. Archived from the original on November 24, 2005. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
  16. ↑ "Growing Winter Rye in Scotland". Farm Advisory Service Scotland. May 10, 2023. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  17. 1 2 Jouki, Mohammad; Emam-Djomeh, Zahra; Khazaei, Naimeh (2012). "Physical Properties of Whole Rye Seed (Secale cereal)". International Journal of Food Engineering. 8 (4). doi:10.1515/1556-3758.2054. S2CID   102003836.
  18. ↑ Jensen, Joan M. (1988). Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750–1850. New Haven: Yale University Press (YUP). p. 47. ISBN   978-0-300-04265-8 . Retrieved July 17, 2016– via Google Books.
  19. ↑ Jones, Peter M. (2016). Agricultural Enlightenment: Knowledge, Technology, and Nature, 1750–1840. Oxford: Oxford University Press (OUP). p. 123. ISBN   978-0-19-102515-0.
  20. ↑ Burgos, Nilda R.; Talbert, Ronald E.; Kuk, Yong In (2006). "Grass-legume mixed cover crops for weed management". In Sing, Harinder P.; Batish, Daisy Rani; Kohli, Ravinder Kumar (eds.). Handbook of Sustainable Weed Management. New York: Haworth Press. p. 110. ISBN   978-1-56022-957-5 . Retrieved October 5, 2016– via Google Books.
  21. ↑ Willy H. Verheye, ed. (2010). "Growth And Production Of Oat And Rye". Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II. EOLSS Publishers. p. 121. ISBN   978-1-84826-368-0. Archived from the original on May 11, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
  22. ↑ Hon, W. C.; Griffith, M.; Chong, P.; Yang, D. S.-C. (March 1, 1994). "Extraction and Isolation of Antifreeze Proteins from Winter Rye (Secale cereale L.) Leaves". Plant Physiology . 104 (3): 971–980. doi:10.1104/pp.104.3.971. ISSN   1532-2548. PMC   160695 . PMID   12232141.
  23. ↑ Lyon, Drew J.; Klein, Robert N (May 2007) [2002]. "Rye Control in Winter Wheat" (Revised ed.). Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Extension. Archived from the original on April 13, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
  24. ↑ Matz, Samuel A. (1991). Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as Food and Feed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold/AVI. pp. 181–182. ISBN   978-0-442-30830-8 . Retrieved July 14, 2016.
  25. ↑ ergot Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine , online medical dictionary
  26. ↑ ergot, Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  27. ↑ Petruzzello, Melissa. "Ergot". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  28. 1 2 Annika, Djurle; Young, Beth; Berlin, Anna; Vågsholm, Ivar; Blomstrom, Anne; Nygren, Jim; Kvarnheden, Anders (2022). "Addressing biohazards to food security in primary production". Food Security . 14 (6). Springer Nature: 1475–1497. doi: 10.1007/s12571-022-01296-7 . eISSN   1876-4525. ISSN   1876-4517. S2CID   250250761.
  29. ↑ Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity
  30. ↑ "Crops and livestock products". FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "FAOSTAT". www.fao.org. Retrieved March 1, 2024.
  32. ↑ "OEC - Countries that export Rye (2016)". Archived from the original on March 23, 2022. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
  33. ↑ "OEC - Countries that export Wheat except durum wheat, and meslin (2016)". Archived from the original on March 23, 2022. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
  34. ↑ "Statistics and Usage - www.ryeandhealth.org". Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
  35. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  36. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ↑ "21 CFR Part 101 [Docket No. 2004P-0512], Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Dietary Fiber From Certain Foods and Coronary Heart Disease". US Food and Drug Administration. May 22, 2006. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021. Retrieved December 2, 2015.
  38. ↑ "Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Barley Products and Blood Cholesterol Lowering". Health Canada. July 12, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2022.
  39. ↑ Harris, Kristina A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny M. (2010). "Effects of Whole Grains on Coronary Heart Disease Risk". Current Atherosclerosis Reports. 12 (6): 368–376. doi:10.1007/s11883-010-0136-1. ISSN   1523-3804.
  40. ↑ Williams, P.G. (September 2014). "The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: a systematic review of the evidence base". Advances in Nutrition. 5 (5): 636S–673S. doi:10.3945/an.114.006247. PMC   4188247 . PMID   25225349.
  41. ↑ Tovoli, F.; Masi, C.; Guidetti, E.; Negrini, G.; Paterini, P.; Bolondi, L. (March 16, 2015). "Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders". World Journal of Clinical Cases . 3 (3): 275–284. doi: 10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 . PMC   4360499 . PMID   25789300.
  42. ↑ Pietzak, M. (January 2012). "Celiac Disease, Wheat Allergy, and Gluten Sensitivity". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition . 36 (1 Suppl): 68S–75S. doi:10.1177/0148607111426276. PMID   22237879.
  43. ↑ Belser-Ehrlich, Sarah; Harper, Ashley; Hussey, John; Hallock, Robert (2013). "Human and cattle ergotism since 1900: Symptoms, outbreaks, and regulations". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 29 (4): 307–316. doi:10.1177/0748233711432570. ISSN   0748-2337.
  44. ↑ Suzuki, Yoshikatsu; Esumi, Yasuaki; Yamaguchi, Isamu (1999). "Structures of 5-alkylresorcinol-related analogues in rye". Phytochemistry . 52 (2): 281–289. Bibcode:1999PChem..52..281S. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00196-X.
  45. ↑ "Grains: Rye" Archived November 13, 2018, at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch) bakkerijmuseum.nl
  46. ↑ Prättälä, Ritva; Helasoja, Ville; Mykkänen, Hannu (2000). "The consumption of rye bread and white bread as dimensions of health lifestyles in Finland". Public Health Nutrition . 4 (3): 813–819. doi: 10.1079/PHN2000120 . PMID   11415489.
  47. ↑ "Tuggmotstånd" [Tough to chew]. Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish). May 3, 2016. Archived from the original on May 3, 2016. Retrieved August 9, 2022.
  48. ↑ Hornsey, Ian Spencer (2012). Alcohol and its Role in the Evolution of Human Society. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 296–300. ISBN   978-1-84973-161-4.
  49. ↑ "Forage Identification: Rye". University of Wyoming: Department of Plant Sciences. September 26, 2017. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
  50. ↑ "Winter Rye: A Reliable Cover Crop". University of Vermont . Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  51. ↑ "Use caution when using rye straw for bedding". Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food and Environment. June 7, 2016. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  52. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions - Straw". Straw Craftsmen. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  53. ↑ Vallejos, María E.; Area, María C. (2017). "Xylitol as Bioproduct From the Agro and Forest Biorefinery". Food Bioconversion. Elsevier. p. 411–432. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811413-1.00012-7. ISBN   978-0-12-811413-1.
  54. ↑ "Swedish Red Paint - Falu Röd". Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
  55. ↑ "Triticale". Digital Herbarium of Crop Plants Establishment of Digital Herbarium and Herbal museum for Crop plant by Department of Crop Botany, BSMRAU. Retrieved May 4, 2024.
  56. ↑ Faccini, Nadia; Morcia, Caterina; Terzi, Valeria; Rizza, Fulvia; Badeck, Franz-Werner (October 4, 2023). "Triticale in Italy". Biology. 12 (10): 1308. doi: 10.3390/biology12101308 . ISSN   2079-7737. PMC   10603945 . PMID   37887018.
  57. ↑ Ribeiro, Miguel; Seabra, Luís; Ramos, António; Santos, Sofia; Pinto-Carnide, Olinda; Carvalho, Carlos; Igrejas, Gilberto (April 1, 2012). "Polymorphism of the storage proteins in Portuguese rye (Secale cereale L.) populations". Hereditas . 149 (2): 72–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-5223.2012.02239.x . ISSN   1601-5223. PMID   22568702.
  58. ↑ Bauer, Eva; Schmutzer, Thomas; Barilar, Ivan; Mascher, Martin; Gundlach, Heidrun; Martis, Mihaela M.; Twardziok, Sven O.; Hackauf, Bernd; Gordillo, Andres (March 1, 2017). "Towards a whole-genome sequence for rye (Secale cereale L.)". The Plant Journal . 89 (5): 853–869. doi: 10.1111/tpj.13436 . ISSN   1365-313X. PMID   27888547.
  59. ↑ Rabanus-Wallace, M.; Stein, Nils (2021). The Rye Genome. Springer Nature. pp. 85–100. ISBN   978-3-030-83383-1. which cites Li, Guangwei; Wang, Lijian; Yang, Jianping; et al. (2021). "A high-quality genome assembly highlights rye genomic characteristics and agronomically important genes". Nature Genetics . 53 (4). Nature Portfolio: 574–584. doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00808-z. ISSN   1061-4036. PMC   8035075 . PMID   33737755. S2CID   232298036.
  60. ↑ Nguyen, Vy; Fleury, Delphine; Timmins, Andy; Laga, Hamid; Hayden, Matthew; Mather, Diane; Okada, Takashi (February 26, 2015). "Addition of rye chromosome 4R to wheat increases anther length and pollen grain number". Theoretical and Applied Genetics . 128 (5): 953–964. doi:10.1007/s00122-015-2482-4. ISSN   0040-5752. PMID   25716820. S2CID   16421403.
  61. 1 2 Herrera, Leonardo; Gustavsson, Larisa; Åhman, Inger (2017). "A systematic review of rye (Secale cereale L.) as a source of resistance to pathogens and pests in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)". Hereditas . 154 (1). BioMed Central: 1–9. doi: 10.1186/s41065-017-0033-5 . ISSN   1601-5223. PMC   5445327 . PMID   28559761.
  62. ↑ "AC Hazlet" (PDF). SeCAN. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2014.
  63. ↑ Ellis, Jeffrey G.; Lagudah, Evans S.; Spielmeyer, Wolfgang; Dodds, Peter N. (November 24, 2014). "The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat". Frontiers in Plant Science. 5. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00641 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   4241819 . PMID   25505474.
  64. ↑ Sipos, Tamás; Halász, Erika (April 25, 2007). "The role of perennial rye (Secale cereale × S. montanum) in sustainable agriculture". Cereal Research Communications. 35 (2): 1073–1075. doi:10.1556/CRC.35.2007.2.227. ISSN   0133-3720.
  65. ↑ Golther, Wolfgang (2011)Germanische Mythologie: Vollständige Ausgabe. Marix-Verlag, Wiesbaden, ISBN   978-3-937715-38-4 p. 200.
  66. ↑ Mannhardt, Wilhelm (2005) Wald- und Feldkulte: Band II. Elibron Classics, ISBN   1-4212-4778-X p. 319.
  67. ↑ Dahn, Felix; Dahn, Therese (2010) Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen. Marix-Verlag, Wiesbaden, ISBN   978-3-937715-39-1 p. 171.
  68. ↑ Mannhardt, Wilhelm (2014) Die Korndämonen: Beitrag zur germanischen Sittenkunde. Bremen University Press, Bremen, ISBN   978-3-95562-798-0 p. 20.
  69. 1 2 Ruck, Carl (2019). "Persia, Haoma and the Greek Mysteries" (PDF). Sexus Journal. 4 (11): 991–1034.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.