Ectocarpus

Last updated

Ectocarpus
Ectocarpus siliculosus.jpg
E. siliculosus, from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890-1907)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Stramenopiles
Phylum: Gyrista
Subphylum: Ochrophytina
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Ectocarpales
Family: Ectocarpaceae
Genus: Ectocarpus
Lyngbye 1819

Ectocarpus is a genus of filamentous brown alga that includes a model organism for the genomics of multicellularity. [1] [2] Among possible model organisms in the brown algae, Ectocarpus was selected for the relatively small size of its mature thallus and the speed with which it completes its life cycle. [3] [4] Tools available for Ectocarpus as a model species include a high quailty genome sequence [5] and both forward [6] and reverse genetic [7] methodologies, the latter based on CRISPR-Cas9.

Contents

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Brown algae are heterokonts, a group that also includes diatoms and oomycetes. Despite their simple filamentous thalli, the Ectocarpales are part of the crown group of brown algal orders and are a sister group to the order Laminariales (kelps). [8] The type species for the genus is Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye. [9] In 1809, Dillwyn described Ectocarpus as Conferva siliculosa based on specimens collected by W.J. Hooker from Norfolk and East Sussex. In 1819, Lyngbye subsequently described Ectocarpus using a specimen from Denmark, citing C. siliculosa Dilwyn as its basionym. [10]

Morphology

Studies on morphology have been limited for Ectocarpus as only two species in the genera (E. siliculosus and E. fasciculatus) are well-described based on morphology and genetic sequence.

Ectocarpus is a filamentous alga that can grow up to 30 cm. Cultured specimens in the laboratory tend to be fertile when they are 1–3 cm in length. Ectocarpus has a normal, branched appearance in unialgal cultures, but in axenic cultures it has a ball-shaped appearance suggesting that bacterial symbionts are required for the alga to attain normal morphology. [11]

Distribution

Ectocarpus can be found across the globe, in temperate shorelines growing as epiphytes on other flora (e.g. seagrass, other alga) or on rocky substrates (epilithic). While commonly attached to a substrate, thalli of Ectocarpus may also survive while floating. Ectocarpus are more commonly found as epiphytes on marine macroflora rather than epilithic. [12] E. fasciculatus is known as an endophyte of Laminaria digitata, but no study has documented how it bypasses the kelp's defense. [13] [14] E. crouniorium are found in the intertidal zone while E. siliculosus and E. fasciculatus can be found in mid-intertidal and subtidal zones, respectively. [15]

Ecology

Ectocarpus thalli tend to shelter several marine invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans and nematodes) and some protists. [16] Temperature affects the life cycle of some strains. [17] A study of the life cycles of natural populations in NW France and SW Italy found marked isomorphy between generations in some populations and evidence of populations with modified, asexual life cycles. [18]

Life History

In the laboratory, the life history is an isomorphic to slightly heteromorphic alternation of generations, but asexual strains also exist. Ectocarpus has a haploid-diploid life cycle with both sporophyte and gametophyte generations. It can complete its whole life cycle within 3 months in the laboratory. Diploid sporophytes give rise to haploid meiospores which will then produce a haploid gametophyte generation. These gametophytes are dioecious, producing either male or female gametes, which fuse to produce diploid zygotes, restarting the sporophyte stage. Parthenogenesis may also occur when a gamete does not find a gamete of the opposite sex, producing a parthenosporophyte. [19] Deployment of the sporophyte developmental program requires two TALE homeodomain transcription factors, OUROBOROS and SAMSARA. [20] If either of the genes encoding these two proteins is disfunctional, the alga develops as a gametophyte.

Cultivation and Exploitation

A protocol has been established to culture Ectocarpus in the laboratory. Ectocarpus is able to grow in artificial seawater although the standard medium is Provasoli-enriched seawater (PES). Standard laboratory conditions are growth at 13 degrees Celsius under a 12h:12h light:dark cycle with irradiance at 20 μmol photons m−2 s−1. [21]

Chemical Composition

Iodide originating from seawater can accumulate to high concentrations in several brown algae but high levels are not observed in Ectocarpus. Genes predicted to encode enzymes involved in iodine metabolism have been identified in Ectocarpus, including haloperoxidases, dehalogenases and haloalkane dehalogenases. [22] These enzymes may be part of the defence mechanism of Ectocarpus against halogenated defenses of brown algal hosts when growing as an epiphyte. [23]

Utilization and Management

Ectocarpus is vulnerable to an array of pathogens and parasites and is also sensitive to abiotic stresses such as shifts in temperature, light and salinity. Major modifications to the Ectocarpus transcriptome have been observed following stress treatments. [24]

List of species

Some currently accepted species of Ectocarpus include:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown algae</span> Large group of multicellular algae, comprising the class Phaeophyceae

Brown algae are a large group of multicellular algae comprising the class Phaeophyceae. They include many seaweeds located in colder waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Brown algae are the major seaweeds of the temperate and polar regions. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat. For instance, Macrocystis, a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests that contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is Sargassum, which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea lettuce</span> Genus of seaweeds

The sea lettuces comprise the genus Ulva, a group of edible green algae that is widely distributed along the coasts of the world's oceans. The type species within the genus Ulva is Ulva lactuca, lactuca being Latin for "lettuce". The genus also includes the species previously classified under the genus Enteromorpha, the former members of which are known under the common name green nori.

<i>Oscillatoria</i> Genus of bacteria

Oscillatoria is a genus of sugar making microscopic creatures.

<i>Gracilaria</i> Genus of seaweeds

Gracilaria, also known as irish moss or ogonori, is a genus of red algae in the family Gracilariaceae. It is notable for its economic importance as an agarophyte meaning that it is used to make agar, as well as its use as a food for humans and various species of shellfish. Various species in the genus are cultivated among Asia, South America, Africa and Oceania. They produce over 90% of the world's agar.

<i>Porphyra</i> Genus of seaweed

Porphyra is a genus of coldwater seaweeds that grow in cold, shallow seawater. More specifically, it belongs to red algae phylum of laver species, comprising approximately 70 species. It grows in the intertidal zone, typically between the upper intertidal zone and the splash zone in cold waters of temperate oceans. In East Asia, it is used to produce the sea vegetable products nori and gim. There are considered to be 60–70 species of Porphyra worldwide and seven around Britain and Ireland, where it has been traditionally used to produce edible sea vegetables on the Irish Sea coast. The species Porphyra purpurea has one of the largest plastid genomes known, with 251 genes.

Phycodnaviridae is a family of large (100–560 kb) double-stranded DNA viruses that infect marine or freshwater eukaryotic algae. Viruses within this family have a similar morphology, with an icosahedral capsid. As of 2014, there were 33 species in this family, divided among 6 genera. This family belongs to a super-group of large viruses known as nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses. Evidence was published in 2014 suggesting that specific strains of Phycodnaviridae might infect humans rather than just algal species, as was previously believed. Most genera under this family enter the host cell by cell receptor endocytosis and replicate in the nucleus. Phycodnaviridae play important ecological roles by regulating the growth and productivity of their algal hosts. Algal species such Heterosigma akashiwo and the genus Chrysochromulina can form dense blooms which can be damaging to fisheries, resulting in losses in the aquaculture industry. Heterosigma akashiwo virus (HaV) has been suggested for use as a microbial agent to prevent the recurrence of toxic red tides produced by this algal species. Phycodnaviridae cause death and lysis of freshwater and marine algal species, liberating organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus into the water, providing nutrients for the microbial loop.

<i>Pylaiella</i> Genus of seaweeds

Pylaiella (mung) is a genus of seaweed that can be a nuisance due to its ability to coat people, ropes, animals, and more when it blooms close to the shore under particular conditions.

Myriotrichia is a genus of brown algae.

<i>Ectocarpus siliculosus</i> Species of brown alga

Ectocarpus siliculosus is a filamentous brown alga. Its genome was the first brown macroalgal genome to be sequenced, with the expectation that E. siliculosus will serve as a genetic and genomic model for brown macroalgae.

Bangia is an extant genus of division Rhodophyta that grows in marine or freshwater habitats. Bangia has small thalli with rapid growth and high reproductive output, and exhibits behavior characteristic of r-selected species. The plants are attached by down-growing rhizoids, usually in dense purple-black to rust-colored clumps. The chloroplasts of Bangia, like others in the division Rhodophyta, contain chlorophyll a and sometimes chlorophyll d, as well as accessory pigments such as phycobilin pigments and xanthophylls. Depending on the relative proportions of these pigments and the light conditions, the overall color of the plant can range from green to red to purple to grey; however, the red pigment, phycoerythrin, is usually dominant.

<i>Laurencia</i> Genus of algae

Laurencia is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to 65 m (213 ft).

<i>Hypnea</i> Genus of algae

Hypnea is a genus of red algae, and a well known carrageenophyte.

<i>Dictyota</i> Genus of seaweed in the family Dictyotaceae

Dictyota is a genus of brown seaweed in the family Dictyotaceae. Species are predominantly found in tropical and subtropical seas, and are known to contain numerous chemicals (diterpenes) which have potential medicinal value. As at the end of 2017, some 237 different diterpenes had been identified from across the genus.

Fucophycidae is a subclass of Phaeophyceae which contains the most complex and evolved orders of Chromista algae. The members of this subclass have stalks with several morphological forms and distinct structures, characterized by an intercalary growth and a basic heteromorphic, sometimes secondarily iso- or sub-isomorphic life cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2-Fluoroadenine</span> Chemical compound

2-Fluoroadenine (2-FA) is a toxic adenine antimetabolite which can be used in laboratory biological research for counterselection of wildtype bacterial or eukaryotic APT genes. Therefore, knockouts or mutants for APT, which are resistant to 2-FA, can be selected.

<i>Callithamnion</i> Genus of algae

Callithamnion is a genus of algae belonging to the family Callithamniaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Liagoraceae</span> Family of algae

Liagoraceae is a family of red algae (Rhodophyta) in the order Nemaliales. The type genus is LiagoraJ.V.Lamouroux.

Svenja Heesch is a German botanist, algologist, biogeographer, curator and explorer, and is a specialist in the taxonomy of algae families.

References

  1. ↑ Cock, J.M.; et al. (2010). "The Ectocarpus genome and the independent evolution of multicellularity in brown algae". Nature. 465 (7298): 617–621. Bibcode:2010Natur.465..617C. doi: 10.1038/nature09016 . PMID   20520714.
  2. ↑ Cock, J. Mark (2023). "The model system Ectocarpus: integrating functional genomics into brown algal research". Journal of Phycology. 59: 4–8. doi:10.1111/jpy.13310.
  3. ↑ Peters, A.F.; Marie, D.; Scornet, D.; Kloareg, B.; Cock, J.M. (2004). "Proposal of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) as a model organism for brown algal genetics and genomics". Journal of Phycology. 40 (6): 1079–1088. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.04058.x. S2CID   86664046.
  4. ↑ Dieter G. Müller, Markus Kapp, Rolf Knippers, Viruses in Marine Brown Algae, In: Karl Maramorosch, Frederick A. Murphy and Aaron J. Shatkin, Editor(s), Advances in Virus Research, Academic Press, 1998, Volume 50, Pages 49-67, ISSN 0065-3527, ISBN   9780120398508, doi : 10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60805-2
  5. ↑ Cormier, Alexandre; Avia, Komlan; Sterck, Lieven; Derrien, Thomas; Wucher, Valentin; Andres, Gwendoline; Monsoor, Misharl; Godfroy, Olivier; Lipinska, Agnieszka; Perrineau, Marie‐Mathilde; Van De Peer, Yves; Hitte, Christophe; Corre, Erwan; Coelho, Susana M.; Cock, J. Mark (2016-11-21). "Re‐annotation, improved large‐scale assembly and establishment of a catalogue of noncoding loci for the genome of the model brown alga Ectocarpus". New Phytologist. 214 (1). Wiley: 219–232. doi:10.1111/nph.14321. ISSN   0028-646X.
  6. ↑ Macaisne, Nicolas; Liu, Fuli; Scornet, Delphine; Peters, Akira F.; Lipinska, Agnieszka; Perrineau, Marie-Mathilde; Henry, Antoine; Strittmatter, Martina; Coelho, Susana M.; Cock, J. Mark (2017-01-01). "TheEctocarpus IMMEDIATE UPRIGHTgene encodes a member of a novel family of cysteine-rich proteins that have an unusual distribution across the eukaryotes". Development. The Company of Biologists. doi:10.1242/dev.141523. ISSN   1477-9129.
  7. ↑ Badis, Yacine; Scornet, Delphine; Harada, Minori; Caillard, Céline; Godfroy, Olivier; Raphalen, Morgane; Gachon, Claire M. M.; Coelho, Susana M.; Motomura, Taizo; Nagasato, Chikako; Cock, J. Mark (2021-07-10). "Targeted CRISPR‐Cas9‐based gene knockouts in the model brown alga Ectocarpus". New Phytologist. 231 (5). Wiley: 2077–2091. doi:10.1111/nph.17525. ISSN   0028-646X.
  8. ↑ Akita, Shingo; Vieira, Christophe; Hanyuda, Takeaki; Rousseau, Florence; Cruaud, Corinne; Couloux, Arnaud; Heesch, Svenja; Cock, J. Mark; Kawai, Hiroshi (2022). "Providing a phylogenetic framework for trait-based analyses in brown algae: Phylogenomic tree inferred from 32 nuclear protein-coding sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 168: 107408. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107408.
  9. ↑ AlgaeBase
  10. ↑ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN   1469-8137. PMID   18181960.
  11. ↑ Tapia, Javier E.; González, Bernardo; Goulitquer, Sophie; Potin, Philippe; Correa, Juan A. (2016). "Microbiota Influences Morphology and Reproduction of the Brown Alga Ectocarpus sp". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 197. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00197 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   4765120 . PMID   26941722.
  12. ↑ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN   1469-8137. PMID   18181960.
  13. ↑ Russell (1983). "Parallel growth patterns in algal epiphytes and Laminaria blades" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 13: 303. Bibcode:1983MEPS...13..303R. doi:10.3354/meps013303.
  14. ↑ Russell (1983). "Formation of an ectocarpoid epiflora on blades of Laminaria digitata" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 11: 181. Bibcode:1983MEPS...11..181R. doi:10.3354/meps011181.
  15. ↑ Peters, Akira F.; Wijk, Serinde J. Van; Cho, Ga Youn; Scornet, Delphine; Hanyuda, Takeaki; Kawai, Hiroshi; Schroeder, Declan C.; Cock, J. Mark; Boo, Sung Min (2010). "Reinstatement of Ectocarpus crouaniorum Thuret in Le Jolis as a third common species of Ectocarpus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) in Western Europe, and its phenology at Roscoff, Brittany". Phycological Research. 58 (3): 157–170. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.2010.00574.x. ISSN   1440-1835. S2CID   82731900.
  16. ↑ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN   1469-8137. PMID   18181960.
  17. ↑ Bolton, J. J. (1983-03-01). "Ecoclinal variation in Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyceae) with respect to temperature growth optima and survival limits". Marine Biology. 73 (2): 131–138. doi:10.1007/BF00406880. ISSN   1432-1793. S2CID   85006513.
  18. ↑ Couceiro, Lucía; Le Gac, Mickael; Hunsperger, Heather M.; Mauger, Stéphane; Destombe, Christophe; Cock, J. Mark; Ahmed, Sophia; Coelho, Susana M.; Valero, Myriam; Peters, Akira F. (2015). "Evolution and maintenance of haploid-diploid life cycles in natural populations: The case of the marine brown algaEctocarpus". Evolution. 69 (7). Wiley: 1808–1822. doi:10.1111/evo.12702. ISSN   0014-3820.
  19. ↑ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Le Bail, Aude; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (January 2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus : two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   18181960.
  20. ↑ Arun, Alok; Coelho, Susana M.; Peters, Akira F.; Bourdareau, Simon; Pérès, Laurent; Scornet, Delphine; Strittmatter, Martina; Lipinska, Agnieszka; Yao, Haiqin; Godfroy, Olivier; Montecinos, Gabriel J.; Avia, Komlan; Macaisne, Nicolas; Troadec, Christelle; Bendahmane, Abdelhafid; Cock, J. Mark (2019). "Convergent recruitment of TALE homeodomain life cycle regulators to direct sporophyte development in land plants and brown algae". eLife. 8: e43101. doi: 10.7554/eLife.43101 .
  21. ↑ Coelho, Susana M.; Scornet, Delphine; Rousvoal, Sylvie; Peters, Nick T.; Dartevelle, Laurence; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2012-02-01). "How to Cultivate Ectocarpus". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 258–261. doi:10.1101/pdb.prot067934. ISSN   1940-3402. PMID   22301662.
  22. ↑ Cock, J. Mark; Sterck, Lieven; Rouzé, Pierre; Scornet, Delphine; Allen, Andrew E.; Amoutzias, Grigoris; Anthouard, Veronique; Artiguenave, François; Aury, Jean-Marc; Badger, Jonathan H.; Beszteri, Bank (June 2010). "The Ectocarpus genome and the independent evolution of multicellularity in brown algae". Nature. 465 (7298): 617–621. Bibcode:2010Natur.465..617C. doi: 10.1038/nature09016 . ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   20520714. S2CID   4329490.
  23. ↑ Coelho, Susana M.; Scornet, Delphine; Rousvoal, Sylvie; Peters, Nick T.; Dartevelle, Laurence; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2012-02-01). "Ectocarpus: A Model Organism for the Brown Algae". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 193–198. doi: 10.1101/pdb.emo065821 . ISSN   1940-3402. PMID   22301644.
  24. ↑ Dittami, Simon M.; Gravot, Antoine; Renault, David; Goulitquer, Sophie; Eggert, Anja; Bouchereau, Alain; Boyen, Catherine; Tonon, Thierry (2011). "Integrative analysis of metabolite and transcript abundance during the short-term response to saline and oxidative stress in the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus". Plant, Cell & Environment. 34 (4): 629–642. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02268.x . ISSN   1365-3040. PMID   21281312.
  25. ↑ For information concerning Ectocarpus landsburgii and link to download of the original description (with image) in Harvey, W.H. (1849)—Phycologia britannica see: "Ectocarpus landsburgii Harvey 1849". AlgaeBase. Archived from the original on 2022-11-21. Retrieved 2022-11-21.

Further reading

Bourdareau, Simon; Tirichine, Leila; Lombard, Bérangère; Loew, Damarys; Scornet, Delphine; Wu, Yue; Coelho, Susana M.; Cock, J. Mark (2021). "Histone modifications during the life cycle of the brown alga Ectocarpus". Genome Biology. 22 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. doi: 10.1186/s13059-020-02216-8 . ISSN   1474-760X.

Ahmed, Sophia; Cock, J. Mark; Pessia, Eugenie (2014). "A Haploid System of Sex Determination in the Brown Alga Ectocarpus sp". Current Biology. 24 (17): 1945–1957. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.07.042 . PMID   25176635.

Tarver, James E.; Cormier, Alexandre; Pinzón, Natalia; Taylor, Richard S.; Carré, Wilfrid; Strittmatter, Martina; Seitz, Hervé; Coelho, Susana M.; Cock, J. Mark (2015). "microRNAs and the evolution of complex multicellularity: identification of a large, diverse complement of microRNAs in the brown algaEctocarpus". Nucleic Acids Research. 43 (13). Oxford University Press (OUP): 6384–6398. doi:10.1093/nar/gkv578. ISSN   0305-1048.

Prigent, Sylvian (2014). "The genome-scale metabolic network of Ectocarpus siliculosus (EctoGEM): a resource to study brown algal physiology and beyond". Plant Journal. 80 (2): 367–381. doi: 10.1111/tpj.12627 . PMID   25065645.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.