Mycena galericulata

Last updated

Mycena galericulata
Mycena 60303.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Mycenaceae
Genus: Mycena
Species:
M. galericulata
Binomial name
Mycena galericulata
(Scop.) Gray (1821)
Synonyms [1]

Agaricus galericulatusScop. (1772)
Agaricus conicus Huds. (1778)
Agaricus crispus Batsch (1783)
Stereopodium galericulatum(Scop.) Earle (1909)
Prunulus galericulatus(Scop.) Murrill (1916)

Contents

Mycena galericulata
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Conical cap icon.svg Cap is conical
Adnexed gills icon2.svgSinuate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnexed or sinuate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Inedible.pngEdibility is inedible

Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet, the toque mycena, the common mycena or the rosy-gill fairy helmet. The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772, but was not considered a Mycena until 1821. It is quite variable in color, size, and shape, which makes it somewhat difficult to reliably identify in the field. The mushrooms have caps with distinct radial grooves, particularly at the margin. The cap's color varies from grayish brown to dark brown and the shape ranges from bell-like to bluntly conical to flattened with an umbo. The stem is hollow, white, tough and thin, without a ring and often roots deeply into the wood on which it grows. The gills are white to grayish or even pinkish when mature and are connected by distinct cross-veins. The caps can reach 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter, and have a mealy odor and taste. The spore print is white and the gills are pink at maturity, which can lead to possible confusion with species of the genus Pluteus . M. galericulata mushrooms grow mostly in clusters on the well-decayed stumps of deciduous and coniferous trees from spring to autumn. The species can generally be considered inedible. It is common and widespread in the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, but it has also been reported from Africa.

Taxonomy, classification, and naming

The fungus was first described scientifically as Agaricus galericulatus by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772, [2] and sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . [3] That same year, Samuel Frederick Gray transferred the species to the genus Mycena . [4] Synonyms for the species include Agaricus conicus named by William Hudson in 1778, Agaricus crispus described by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch in 1893, Stereopodium galericulatum by Franklin Sumner Earle in 1909, [5] and Prunulus galericulatus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1916. [1]

Mycena galericulata is the type species of the genus Mycena. It is classified in section Mycena of Mycena in the infrageneric scheme of Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus. [6] In the older (1947) classification of Alexander H. Smith, he placed it in the subgenus Eumycena, section Typicae—"a most monotonous series of blackish, brown, gray, bluish-gray, or brownish-gray species mostly with ascending gills and generally large to moderate stature." [7]

The specific epithet galericulata is derived from the Latin galer, and means "with a small hat". [8] Gray called it the "helmetted high-stool". [4] It is commonly known as the "common bonnet", the "toque mycena", [8] or the "rosy-gill fairy helmet". [9]

Description

Mycena galericulata 63380.jpg
The gills are interspersed with several tiers of lamellulae, and are strongly interveined.
Mycena galericulata 051106w.jpg
The cap of this older specimen is flattened with splits at the margin; it has a broad umbo and radial striations.

The cap of M. galericulata is roughly conical when young, and eventually becomes broadly bell-shaped or with a broad umbo that can reach diameters of 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in). The cap margin is initially somewhat curved inward, but soon evens out or even becomes uplifted, and often splits radially in age. The surface has radial grooves that extend nearly to the center, and feels greasy but not sticky. The color is somewhat buff-brown on the margin, and fades gradually to pale dirty tan to dirty cinnamon-brown. The flesh is thick in the center of the cap and tapers evenly to the margin, and is watery gray, with a cartilage-like texture. The odor and taste are mildly to strongly farinaceous (similar to the smell of freshly ground flour), [10] to radish-like. [11]

The gills are narrowly attached (adnexed) to broadly attached or sinuate. The gill spacing ranges from close to somewhat distantly spaced, with 26–36 gills reaching the stem; there are additionally three or four tiers of lamellulae (short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stem). The gills are strongly intervenose (possessing cross-veins), moderately broad (5–7 mm), white or grayish white, soon flushed with pale pink, with even edges. The stem is 5–9 cm (2.0–3.5 in) long, 2–4 mm (0.08–0.16 in) thick, equal in width throughout, and with a cartilaginous texture. It is hollow, not hairy, either smooth or twisted with longitudinal striations, often with a long pseudorrhiza (a subterranean elongation of the stem) at the base. The stem color is pale grayish white on the upper portion, and pale grayish black below; the base becomes somewhat dirty brown in age, but does not develop reddish stains. [10]

Mycena galericulata produces a white spore print. The spores are ellipsoid, 8–10 by 5.5–7  μm, and amyloid—which means they will turn blue-black to black when stained with Melzer's reagent. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) have stout sterigmata, and measure 34–40 by 7–9 μm. They may be either two-spored or four-spored. There are numerous club-shaped to rounded cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge), that measure 32–40 by 8–12 μm; their apices or the entire enlarged portion bear rodlike projections that become increasingly elongated and branched in age. There are no pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face). The gill tissue has a very thin cuticle, under which is a narrow hypoderm, while the remainder of the tissue comprises densely matted tufts of mycelia, and stains deep vinaceous-brown in iodine. [10] Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of the four-spored forms. [12]

Edibility

Most sources list the species as inedible, [13] [8] with a "mildly rancid" smell, and with a taste ranging from rancid to farinaceous. [13] An older source considers them edible when "stewed gently in their own juice and then seasoned with salt, pepper and butter." [14] Another says "unknown, but not recommended". [9] At any rate, the species falls into the general category of brownish mycenas that are generally unappetizing as food due to their small-medium size and delicate consistency. [9]

Similar species

All lookalikes are smaller than this one, although ranging in colours and odours.

Mycena inclinata 146384.jpg
Mycena maculata 60204.jpg
Lookalikes M. inclinata (left) and M. maculata (right) can often be distinguished from M. galericulata by the stains that develop on the gills as they mature.

The winter bonnet ( M. tintinnabulum ) is a northern European species that is much smaller (cap diameter up to 2.6 cm (1.0 in) across) and has a brown cap, and has ragged hairs at the base. It generally appears in late autumn to early winter on the stumps of deciduous trees, especially beech. It has pip-shaped spores that are smaller than M. galericulata, around 4.5–5.5 by 2.5–2.8 μm. [15] M. maculata develops pink stains on its gills as it matures; its spores are 7–9 by 4–5 μm. [16] Another similar species is M. inclinata , which can be distinguished by gills bearing reddish spots, which may become entirely red with age. [13] It also has whitish, slender, threadlike flecks on the stalk. M. parabolica is thinner, and more fragile. [9] Another Mycena that grows in clusters on decaying hardwoods is M. haematopus , but this species has a vinaceous-brown cap with a scalloped margin, and a stem that bleeds reddish-brown juice when injured. [17] M. excisa closely resembles M. galericulata, but can be distinguished microscopically by the presence of both smooth and roughened cystidia (bearing finger-like projections). [18]

Ecology, habitat and distribution

Fruit bodies typically grow in clusters on rotting wood. Mycena galericulata 12308.jpg
Fruit bodies typically grow in clusters on rotting wood.

Mycena galericulata is saprobic, and grows on decaying hardwood and softwood sticks, chips, logs, and stumps. It can also grow from submerged wood, which may give it a terrestrial appearance. It typically grows in small clusters or sometimes singly. [19] The fungus fruits from late spring to early winter. [14] A study of litter-decomposing fungi in a coniferous forest in Finland showed that M. galericulata produces extracellular hydrolytic enzymes in the humus and eluvial soil, including β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, α-glucosidase, butyrate esterase and sulphatase. The enzymes form complexes with inorganic and organic particles in the soil and break down (depolymerize) biopolymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and starch, which contributes to the cycling of carbon and nutrients. [20] The presence of lead contamination in the soil decreases both the growth and the extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activity of M. galericulata. [21]

Mycena galericulata is a very common and widely distributed species, found throughout the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. [8] In the United States, it occurs throughout eastern North America and also along the Pacific Coast. [10] It has also been collected in Edo State, Nigeria. [22] Although the mushroom has occasionally been reported from Australia, these collections are probably based on misidentifications, and "Australian records of Mycena galericulata are best regarded as erroneous". [23] The mushroom was reported in Bogotá, Colombia, South America.

Related Research Articles

<i>Mycena galopus</i> Species of fungus

Mycena galopus, commonly known as the milky mycena, milking bonnet or milk-drop mycena, is an inedible species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae of the order Agaricales. It produces small mushrooms that have grayish-brown, bell-shaped, radially-grooved caps up to 2.5 cm (1 in) wide. The gills are whitish to gray, widely spaced, and squarely attached to the stem. The slender stems are up to 8 cm (3 in) long, and pale gray at the top, becoming almost black at the hairy base. The stem will ooze a whitish latex if it is injured or broken. The variety nigra has a dark gray cap, while the variety candida is white. All varieties of the mushroom occur during summer and autumn on leaf litter in coniferous and deciduous woodland.

<i>Mycena haematopus</i> Fungus species in the family Mycenaceae widespread and common in Europe and North America

Mycena haematopus, commonly known as the bleeding fairy helmet, the burgundydrop bonnet, or the bleeding Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is widespread and common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in old Japan and Venezuela. It is saprotrophic—meaning that it obtains nutrients by consuming decomposing organic matter—and the fruit bodies appear in small groups or clusters on the decaying logs, trunks, and stumps of deciduous trees, particularly beech. The fungus, first described scientifically in 1799, is classified in the section Lactipedes of the genus Mycena, along with other species that produce a milky or colored latex.

<i>Mycena acicula</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena acicula, commonly known as the orange bonnet, or the coral spring Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Asia, the Caribbean, North America and Europe. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, of the fungus grow on dead twigs and other woody debris of forest floors, especially along streams and other wet places. They have small orange-red caps, up to 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter, held by slender yellowish stems up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long. The gills are pale yellow with a whitish edge. Several other Mycena species look similar, but may be distinguished by differences in size and/or microscopic characteristics. M. acicula is considered inedible because of its small size.

<i>Atheniella adonis</i> Species of fungus

Atheniella adonis, which has the recommended name of scarlet bonnet in the UK, is a species of agaric in the family Cyphellaceae. Found in Asia, Europe, and North America, it produces small orangish to reddish mushrooms with caps up to 1.2 cm (0.5 in) in diameter and thin pinkish-white stems reaching 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The fungus typically grows in conifer woods and peat bogs, suggesting a preference for acidic environments. The appearance of several atypical fruitings on deciduous wood in the Netherlands in the late 1970s was attributed to increases in atmospheric pollution that raised the acidity of the wood substrate.

<i>Mycena cinerella</i> Species of fungus

Mycena cinerella, commonly known as the mealy bonnet, is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and the United States, where it grows in groups on fallen leaves and needles under pine and Douglas fir. The small grayish mushrooms have caps that are up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide atop stipes that are 5 cm (2.0 in) long and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) thick. Its gills are grayish-white and adnate, with a "tooth" that runs slightly down the stipe. The fungus has both two- and four-spored basidia. As its common name suggests, it smells mealy.

<i>Mycena inclinata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.

<i>Mycena leptocephala</i> Species of fungus

Mycena leptocephala, commonly known as the nitrous bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms have conical grayish caps that reach up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, and thin fragile stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. The gills are gray and distantly spaced. The spores are elliptical, typically measure 7–10 by 4–6 μm, and are white in deposit. When viewed under a light microscope, the gills have abundant spindle-shaped cystidia on the gill edges, but few on the gill faces. The mushroom is found in North America, Asia, and Europe where it grows singly or in groups on conifer needles, cones and sticks on the forest floor. It has a distinctive odor of bleach; the edibility is unknown. Similar species include Mycena alcalina, M. austera, and M. brevipes.

<i>Mycena polygramma</i> Species of fungus

Mycena polygramma, commonly known as the grooved bonnet, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The inedible fruit bodies are small, pale gray-brown mushrooms with broadly conical caps, pinkish gills. They are found in small troops on stumps and branches of deciduous and occasionally coniferous trees. The mushroom is found in Asia, Europe, and North America, where it is typically found on twigs or buried wood, carrying out its role in the forest ecosystem by decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and forming humus in the soil. M. polygramma contains two uncommon hydroxy fatty acids and is also a bioluminescent fungus whose intensity of light emission follows a diurnal pattern.

<i>Mycena vitilis</i> Species of fungus

Mycena vitilis, commonly known as the snapping bonnet, is a species of inedible mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the ground among leaves in damp places, especially under alder. The small pale gray to whitish fruit bodies are usually attached to small sticks buried in the leaves and detritus. They are distinguished by their long, slender stems that root into the ground, and by the grooved cap that reaches diameters of up to 2.2 cm (0.9 in). The grayish-white gills on the underside of the cap are distantly spaced, and adnately attached to the stem. M. vitilis contains strobilurin B, a fungicidal compound with potential use in agriculture.

<i>Mycena sanguinolenta</i> Species of fungus

Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined.

<i>Mycena overholtsii</i> Species of fungus

Mycena overholtsii, commonly known as the snowbank fairy helmet or fuzzy foot, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms produced by the fungus are relatively large for the genus Mycena, with convex grayish caps up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter and stems up to 15 cm (6 in) long. The gills on the underside of the cap are whitish to pale gray, and initially closely spaced before becoming well-spaced at maturity after the cap enlarges. The mushrooms are characterized by the dense covering of white "hairs" on the base of the stem. M. overholtsii is an example of a snowbank fungus, growing on well-decayed conifer logs near snowbanks, during or just after snowmelt. Formerly known only from high-elevation areas of western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain and Cascade regions, it was reported for the first time in Japan in 2010. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. M. overholtsii can be distinguished from other comparable species by differences in location, or spore size.

<i>Mycena stylobates</i> Species of fungus

Mycena stylobates, commonly known as the bulbous bonnet, is a species of inedible mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. Found in North America and Europe, it produces small whitish to gray fruit bodies with bell-shaped caps that are up to 15 mm (0.6 in) in diameter. The distinguishing characteristic of the mushroom is the fragile stipe, which is seated on a flat disk marked with distinct grooves, and fringed with a row of bristles. The mushrooms grow in small troops on leaves and other debris of deciduous and coniferous trees. The mushroom's spores are white in deposit, smooth, and ellipsoid-shaped with dimensions of 6–10 by 3.5–4.5 μm. In the development of the fruit body, the preliminary stipe and cap structures appear at the same time within the primordium, and hyphae originating from the stipe form a cover over the developing structures. The mycelia of the mushroom is believed to have bioluminescent properties.

<i>Mycena clariviolacea</i> Species of fungus

Mycena clariviolacea is a mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First reported as a new species in 2007, it is known only from Kanagawa, Japan, where it fruits on dead fallen twigs in forests dominated by oak and chinquapin trees. Distinctive features of this species are found in its medium-sized, dark violet fruit bodies, with caps up to 25 mm (0.98 in) in diameter and slender stems that are about 30 to 40 mm long. Microscopic characteristics include the amyloid spores, the club-shaped cheilocystidia that are covered with one or more, knob-like, apical protuberances, the absence of pleurocystidia, and the cylindrical, diverticulate caulocystidia.

<i>Mycena lanuginosa</i> Species of fungus

Mycena lanuginosa is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First collected in 2000 and reported as a new species in 2007, it is known only from lowland oak-dominated forests in central Honshu in Japan. The small mushroom is characterized by its grooved, grayish-brown to violet-brown cap up to 11 mm (0.43 in) in diameter, and the slender grayish-brown to reddish-brown stem covered with minute, fine, soft hairs. The mushroom produces amyloid spores. Microscopic distinguishing features include the smooth, spindle-shaped cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia and the diverticulate elements in the outer layer of the cap and the stem.

<i>Mycena multiplicata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena multiplicata is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First described as a new species in 2007, the mushroom is known only from the prefecture of Kanagawa, Japan, where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests dominated by oak. The mushroom has a whitish cap that reaches up to 13 mm (0.51 in) in diameter atop a slender stem 15 to 20 mm long and 1 to 1.3 mm thick. On the underside of the cap are whitish, distantly spaced gills that are narrowly attached to the stem. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the amyloid spores, the pear-shaped to broadly club-shaped cheilocystidia which are covered with a few to numerous, unevenly spaced, cylindrical protuberances, the lack of pleurocystidia, and the diverticulate hyphae in the outer layer of the cap and stem. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Mycena mustea</i> Species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena mustea is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First described as a new species in 2007, the fungus is known only from Kanagawa, Japan, where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests. The mushroom's dull violet to grayish-violet cap, initially covered with a fine whitish powder, becomes smooth as it matures, and eventually reaches a diameter of up to 10 mm (0.39 in). The stem is slender, up to 90 mm (3.5 in) long, and is covered with stiff white hairs at the base. Underneath the cap are distantly spaced pale brownish gills that are narrowly attached to the stem. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the weakly amyloid spores, the club-shaped cheilocystidia featuring one or more short knob-like protuberances, the absence of pleurocystidia, the diverticulate cap cuticle hyphae, and the absence of clamp connections.

<i>Mycena maculata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena maculata, commonly known as the reddish-spotted Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have conic to bell-shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish-gray when young, reaching diameters of up to 4 cm. They are typically wrinkled or somewhat grooved, and have reddish-brown spots in age, or after being cut or bruised. The whitish to pale gray gills also become spotted reddish-brown as they mature. The stem, up to 8 cm (3 in) long and covered with whitish hairs at its base, can also develop reddish stains. The mycelium of M. maculata has bioluminescent properties. The saprobic fungus is found in Europe and North America, where it grows in groups or clusters on the rotting wood of both hardwoods and conifers. The edibility of the fungus is unknown. Although the species is known for, and named after its propensity to stain reddish, occasionally these stains do not appear, making it virtually indistinguishable from M. galericulata.

<i>Mycena aurantiomarginata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae common in Europe and North America

Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.

<i>Collybia tuberosa</i> Species of fungus

Collybia tuberosa, commonly known as the lentil shanklet or the appleseed coincap, is an inedible species of fungus in the family Tricholomataceae, and the type species of the genus Collybia. Like the two other members of its genus, it lives on the decomposing remains of other fleshy mushrooms. The fungus produces small whitish fruit bodies with caps up to 1 cm (0.4 in) wide held by thin stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. On the underside of the cap are closely spaced white gills that are broadly attached to the stem. At the base of the stem, embedded in the substrate is a small reddish-brown sclerotium that somewhat resembles an apple seed. The appearance of the sclerotium distinguishes it from the other two species of Collybia, which are otherwise very similar in overall appearance. C. tuberosa is found in Europe, North America, and Japan, growing in dense clusters on species of Lactarius and Russula, boletes, hydnums, and polypores.

<i>Mycena chlorophos</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena chlorophos is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described in 1860, the fungus is found in subtropical Asia, including India, Japan, Taiwan, Polynesia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, in Australia, and Brazil. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) have pale brownish-grey sticky caps up to 30 mm (1.2 in) in diameter atop stems 6–30 mm (0.2–1.2 in) long and up to a millimeter thick. The mushrooms are bioluminescent and emit a pale green light. Fruiting occurs in forests on fallen woody debris such as dead twigs, branches, and logs. The fungus can be made to grow and fruit in laboratory conditions, and the growth conditions affecting bioluminescence have been investigated.

References

  1. 1 2 "Mycena galericulata (Scop.) Gray 1821". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
  2. ↑ Scopoli JA. (1772). Flora carniolica (in Latin). Vol. 2 (2 ed.). p. 455.
  3. ↑ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Lundin, Sweden: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 143.
  4. 1 2 Gray SF. (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 1. London, UK: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 619.
  5. ↑ Earle FS. (1906). "The genera of North American gill fungi". Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden. 5: 373–451.
  6. ↑ Maas Geesteranus RA. (1992). Mycenas of the Northern Hemisphere. II. Conspectus of the Mycenas of the Northern Hemisphere. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Vetenschappen. ISBN   0-444-85760-5.
  7. ↑ Smith (1947), p. 225.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton, Alberta: Lone Pine Publishing. p.  276. ISBN   0-919433-47-2.
  9. 1 2 3 4 McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 172. ISBN   0-395-91090-0.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Smith (1947), pp. 347–51.
  11. ↑ Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp.  235–6. ISBN   0-89815-169-4.
  12. ↑ Aronsen A. "Mycena galericulata (Scop.) Gray". A key to the Mycenas of Norway. Archived from the original on 2011-06-05. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  13. 1 2 3 Miller Jr., Orson K.; Miller, Hope H. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, CN: FalconGuide. p. 171. ISBN   978-0-7627-3109-1.
  14. 1 2 Dickinson C, Lucas J (1982). VNR Color Dictionary of Mushrooms. New York, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 119–20. ISBN   978-0-442-21998-7.
  15. ↑ Aronsen A. "Mycena tintinnabulum (Fr.) Quél". A key to the Mycenas of Norway. Archived from the original on 2012-10-12. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  16. ↑ Smith (1947), pp. 341–3.
  17. ↑ Wood M, Stevens F. "Mycena galericulata". California Fungi. MykoWeb. Retrieved 2011-06-14.
  18. ↑ Smith (1947), pp. 303–305.
  19. ↑ Kuo M. (December 2010). "Mycena galericulata". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2011-02-16.
  20. ↑ Kähkönen MA, Hakulinen R (2011). "Hydrolytic enzyme activities, carbon dioxide production and the growth of litter degrading fungi in different soil layers in a coniferous forest in Northern Finland". European Journal of Soil Biology. 47 (2): 108–13. doi:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2010.12.004.
  21. ↑ Kähkönen MA, Lankinen P, Hatakka A (2008). "Hydrolytic and ligninolytic enzyme activities in the Pb contaminated soil inoculated with litter-decomposing fungi". Chemosphere. 72 (5): 708–14. Bibcode:2008Chmsp..72..708K. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.04.008. PMID   18499227.
  22. ↑ Idu M, Osemwegie OO, Onyibe HI (2008). "Checklist of flora in Edo State, Nigeria". Plant Archives. 8 (2): 539–49. ISSN   0972-5210.
  23. ↑ Grgurinovic CA. (2003). The Genus Mycena in South-eastern Australia. Fungal Diversity Progress Series No. 9. Hong Kong: Australian Biological Resources Study, Fungal Diversity Press. ISBN   978-962-86765-2-1.

Cited literature

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.