Stereospondyli

Last updated

Stereospondyls
Temporal range: 272.95–120  Ma
Siderops2DB.png
Life restoration of Siderops kehli , a chigutisaurid
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order:† Temnospondyli
Clade:† Stereospondylomorpha
Suborder:† Stereospondyli
Subgroups [1]

The Stereospondyli are a group of extinct temnospondyl amphibians that existed primarily during the Mesozoic period. They are known from all seven continents and were common components of many Triassic ecosystems, likely filling a similar ecological niche to modern crocodilians prior to the diversification of pseudosuchian archosaurs.

Contents

Classification and anatomy

The group was first defined by Zittel (1888) [2] on the recognition of the distinctive vertebral anatomy of the best known stereospondyls of the time, such as Mastodonsaurus and Metoposaurus . The term 'stereospondylous' as a descriptor of vertebral anatomy was coined the following year by Fraas, [3] referring to a vertebral position consisting largely or entirely of the intercentrum in addition to the neural arch. While the name 'Stereospondyli' is derived from the stereospondylous vertebral condition, there is a diversity of vertebral morphologies among stereospondyls, including the diplospondylous ('tupilakosaurid') condition, [4] where the arch sits between the corresponding intercentrum and pleurocentrum, and the plagiosaurid condition, where a single large centrum ossification (identity unknown) is present, and the arch sits between subsequent vertebral positions. [5] The concept of Stereospondyli has thus undergone repeated and frequent revisions by different workers. Defining features include a tight articulation between the parasphenoid and the pterygoid and a stapedial groove. [1]

Evolutionary history

Stereospondyls first definitively appeared during the early Permian, as represented by fragmentary remains of a rhinesuchid from the Pedra de Fogo Formation of Brazil. [6] Rhinesuchids are one of the earliest groups of stereospondyls to appear in the fossil record and are predominantly a late Permian clade, with only one species, Broomistega putterilli, from the Early Triassic of South Africa. However, almost all other groups of stereospondyls are not known from any Paleozoic deposits, which remained dominated by non-stereospondyl stereospondylomorphs. The taxonomically unresolved Peltobatrachus pustulatus, which has historically been regarded as a stereospondyl, is also known from the late Permian of Tanzania. [7] Several more fragmentary records are known from horizons spanning the Permo-Triassic boundary in South America, such as the rhinesuchid-like Arachana nigra from Uruguay [8] and an indeterminate mastodonsaurid [9] from Uruguay.

Following the Permo-Triassic mass extinction, stereospondyls are abundantly represented in the fossil record, particularly from Russia, South Africa, and Australia. [10] This led Yates & Warren (2000) to propose that stereospondyls had sheltered in a high-latitude refugium that would have been somewhat shielded from the global effects of the extinction, and that they subsequently radiated from present-day Australia or Antarctica. [11] Recent discoveries of a diverse rhinesuchid community in South America alongside non-stereospondyl stereospondylomorphs have led to an alternative hypothesis for a radiation from western Gondwana in South America. [1] By the end of the Early Triassic, virtually all major clades of stereospondyls had appeared in the fossil record, although some were more geographically localized (e.g., lapillopsids, rhytidosteids) than those with cosmopolitan distributions (e.g., capitosauroids, trematosauroids).

Stereospondyls were the latest-surviving temnospondyl group. With the diversification of crocodile-like archosaurs and an extinction event at the end of the Triassic, most other temnospondyls disappeared. Chigutisaurid brachyopoids persisted into the Jurassic in Asia and Australia, [12] [13] [14] including Koolasuchus, the youngest known stereospondyl (late Early Cretaceous) from what is now Australia. [15] There is also sparse evidence for the persistence of some trematosauroids into the Jurassic of Asia. [16] If the recent hypothesis that Chinlestegophis, a Late Triassic stereospondyl from North America, is indeed a stem caecilian is correct, then stereospondyls would survive to the present day. [17]

Lifestyle and ecology

Stereospondyls were particularly diverse during the Early Triassic, with small-bodied taxa such as lapillopsids and lydekkerinids that were likely more terrestrially capable present alongside larger taxa that would continue into the Middle Triassic, such as brachyopoids and trematosauroids. The vast majority of stereospondyls, particularly the large-bodied taxa, have been inferred to have been obligately aquatic based on features of the external anatomy such as a well-developed lateral line system, [18] poorly ossified postcranial skeleton, [19] and occasional preservation of proxies of external gills. [20] Many taxa also reflect adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle as evidence in bone histology, which is pachyostotic in many taxa, [21] although some studies suggest a greater terrestrial ability than historically inferred. [22] [23] [24] Most of the aquatic taxa resided in freshwater environments, but some trematosauroids in particular are thought to have been euryhaline based on their preservation in marine sediments with marine organisms. [25] [26] While stereospondyls are often compared to modern crocodilians, the presence of multiple temnospondyls in some environments and the range of morphologies across Stereospondyli indicates that at least some clades occupied drastically different ecological niches, such as benthic ambush predators. [27] Some groups, such as metoposaurids, are often recovered from large monotaxic bone beds interpreted as evidence of aggregation prior to mass death. [28] [29]

Relationships

Phylogeny

Stereospondyli

Peltobatrachidae

Lapillopsidae

Rhinesuchidae

Lydekkerinidae

Capitosauria

Mastodonsauroidea

Trematosauria
Trematosauroidea

Benthosuchus

Thoosuchidae

Trematosauridae

Metoposauroidea

Latiscopidae

Metoposauridae

Plagiosauroidea

Plagiosauridae

Laideriidae

Rhytidosteoidea

Inobrachyopidae

Rhytidosteidae

Brachyopoidea

Brachyopidae

Chigutisauridae

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temnospondyli</span> Ancestors of modern amphibians adapted to life on land

Temnospondyli or temnospondyls is a diverse ancient order of small to giant tetrapods—often considered primitive amphibians—that flourished worldwide during the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic periods, with fossils being found on every continent. A few species continued into the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous periods, but all had gone extinct by the Late Cretaceous. During about 210 million years of evolutionary history, they adapted to a wide range of habitats, including freshwater, terrestrial, and even coastal marine environments. Their life history is well understood, with fossils known from the larval stage, metamorphosis and maturity. Most temnospondyls were semiaquatic, although some were almost fully terrestrial, returning to the water only to breed. These temnospondyls were some of the first vertebrates fully adapted to life on land. Although temnospondyls are amphibians, many had characteristics such as scales and armour-like bony plates that distinguish them from the modern soft-bodied lissamphibians.

<i>Koolasuchus</i> Extinct genus of amphibians

Koolasuchus is an extinct genus of brachyopoid temnospondyl in the family Chigutisauridae. Fossils have been found from Victoria, Australia and date back 125-120 million years ago to Barremian-Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous. Koolasuchus is the youngest known temnospondyl. It is known from several fragments of the skull and other bones such as vertebrae, ribs, and pectoral elements. The type species Koolasuchus cleelandi was named in 1997. K. cleelandi was adopted as the fossil emblem for the state of Victoria, Australia on 13 January 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trematosauria</span> Extinct clade of amphibians

Trematosauria is one of two major groups of temnospondyl amphibians that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the other being the Capitosauria. The trematosaurs were a diverse and important group that included many medium-sized to large forms that were semi-aquatic to fully aquatic. The group included long-snouted forms such as the trematosauroids and short, broad-headed forms such as the metoposaurs. Although most groups did not survive beyond the Triassic, one lineage, the brachyopoids, continued until the Cretaceous period. Trematosauria is defined as all stereospondyls more closely related to Trematosaurus than to Parotosuchus, a capitosaurian.

<i>Metoposaurus</i> Extinct genus of amphibians

Metoposaurus meaning "front lizard" is an extinct genus of stereospondyl temnospondyl amphibian, known from the Late Triassic of Germany, Italy, Poland, and Portugal. This mostly aquatic animal possessed small, weak limbs, sharp teeth, and a large, flat head. This highly flattened creature mainly fed on fish, which it captured with its wide jaws lined with needle-like teeth. Many Metoposaurus mass graves have been found, probably from creatures that grouped together in drying pools during drought.

<i>Rhinesuchus</i> Extinct genus of temnospondyls

Rhinesuchus is a large temnospondyl. Remains of the genus are known from the Permian of the South African Karoo Basin's Tapinocephalus and Cistecephalus assemblage zones, both belonging to the Beaufort Group. The skull of Rhinesuchus had a flat triangular shape with blunt snout similar to some of the other large temnospondyls, and had a palate filled with small sharp teeth, suggesting that it hunted fish. Also, the small eyes were on top of the head suggesting that it approached its prey from below.

<i>Eryosuchus</i> Extinct genus of temnospondyls

Eryosuchus is an extinct genus of capitosauroid temnospondyl from the Middle Triassic of northern Russia. It was a very large predator: the largest specimen known could reach up to 3.5 m (11.5 ft) in length, with a skull over 1 m long.

<i>Cyclotosaurus</i> Extinct genus of temnospondyls

Cyclotosaurus is an extinct genus of temnospondyl within the family Mastodonsauridae. It was of great size for an amphibian, had an elongated skull up to 56 cm (22 in).

<i>Siderops</i> Extinct genus of amphibians

Siderops is an extinct genus of chigutisaurid temnospondyl from Early Jurassic of Australia, containing the species S. kehli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brachyopoidea</span> Extinct superfamily of amphibians

Brachyopoidea is a superfamily of temnospondyls that lived during the Mesozoic. It contains the families Brachyopidae and Chigutisauridae. The earliest records of brachyopids are from the Lower Triassic in Australia. The latest-surviving member of the superfamily is the chigutisaurid Koolasuchus from the Early Cretaceous of Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhinesuchidae</span> Extinct family of temnospondyls

Rhinesuchidae is a family of tetrapods that lived primarily in the Permian period. They belonged to the broad group Temnospondyli, a successful and diverse collection of semiaquatic tetrapods which modern amphibians are probably descended from. Rhinesuchids can be differentiated from other temnospondyls by details of their skulls, most notably the interior structure of their otic notches at the back of the skull. They were among the earliest-diverging members of the Stereospondyli, a subgroup of temnospondyls with flat heads and aquatic habits. Although more advanced stereospondyls evolved to reach worldwide distribution in the Triassic period, rhinesuchids primarily lived in the high-latitude environments of Gondwana during the Guadalupian and Lopingian epochs of the Permian. The taxonomy of this family has been convoluted, with more than twenty species having been named in the past; a 2017 review recognized only eight of them to be valid. While several purported members of this group have been reported to have lived in the Triassic period, most are either dubious or do not belong to the group. However, at least one valid genus of rhinesuchid is known from the early Triassic, a small member known as Broomistega. The most recent formal definition of Rhinesuchidae, advocated by Mariscano et al. (2017) is that of a stem-based clade containing all taxa more closely related to Rhinesuchus whaitsi than to Lydekkerina huxleyi or Peltobatrachus pustulatus. A similar alternate definition is that Rhinesuchidae is a stem-based clade containing all taxa more closely related to Uranocentrodon senekalensis than to Lydekkerina huxleyi, Trematosaurus brauni, or Mastodonsaurus giganteus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lydekkerinidae</span> Extinct family of temnospondyls

Lydekkerinidae is a family of stereospondyl temnospondyls that lived in the Early Triassic period. During this time period, lydekkerinids were widely distributed, with putative remains reported from Russia, Greenland, India, South Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and Antarctica. In contrast to most other stereospondyls, lydekkerinids were relatively small-bodied. The type genus is Lydekkerina, the namesake of the family and the best-known lydekkerinid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereospondylomorpha</span> Extinct clade of amphibians

Stereospondylomorpha is a clade of temnospondyls. It includes the superfamily Archegosauroidea and the more diverse group Stereospondyli. Stereospondylomorpha was first proposed by Yates and Warren (2000), who found Archegosauroidea and Stereospondyli to be sister taxa in their phylogenetic analysis. A similar clade is Archegosauriformes, named by Schoch and Milner (2000), which includes Stereospondyli and some Permian temnospondyls that are similar in appearance to stereospondyls, including the archegosauroids. However, according to Schoch and Milner's phylogeny, Archegosauroidea is a paraphyletic group of taxa that are successively basal to Stereospondyli, rather than a monophyletic sister taxon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limnarchia</span> Extinct clade of amphibians

Limnarchia is a clade of temnospondyls. It includes the mostly Carboniferous-Permian age Dvinosauria and the mostly Permian-Triassic age Stereospondylomorpha. The clade was named in a 2000 phylogenetic analysis of stereospondyls and their relatives. Limnarchia means "lake rulers" in Greek, in reference to their aquatic lifestyles and long existence over a span of approximately 200 million years from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Cretaceous. In phylogenetic terms, Limnarchia is a stem-based taxon including all temnospondyls more closely related to Parotosuchus than to Eryops. It is the sister group of the clade Euskelia, which is all temnospondyls more closely related to Eryops than to Parotosuchus. Limnarchians represent an evolutionary radiation of temnospondyls into aquatic environments, while euskelians represent a radiation into terrestrial environments. While many euskelians were adapted to life on land with strong limbs and bony scutes, most limnarchians were better adapted for the water with poorly developed limbs and lateral line sensory systems in their skulls.

<i>Lapillopsis</i> Extinct genus of temnospondyls

Lapillopsis is an extinct genus of stereospondyl temnospondyl within the family Lapillopsidae. Fossils belonging to the genus have been found in the Arcadia Formation of Queensland, Australia.

<i>Rhineceps</i> Extinct genus of temnospondyls

Rhineceps is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian in the family Rhinesuchidae. Rhineceps was found in Northern Malawi in Southern Africa known only from its type species R. nyasaensis. Rhineceps was a late Permian semi-aquatic carnivore that lived in streams, rivers, lakes or lagoons. Rhineceps is an early divergent Stereopondyl within the family Rhinesuchidae, which only existed in the late Permian (Lopingian) and failed to survive the Permian-Triassic extinction unlike other stereospondyl families.

Rileymillerus is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian from the Late Triassic Post Quarry in the Dockum Group of Texas that was described by John Bolt and Sankar Chatterjee in 2000. The holotype, a nearly complete skull with articulated jaws, is housed at the Museum of Texas Tech University. The genus is named for Riley Miller, who allowed Chatterjee to work on the Post Quarry, and the species is named for the paleontologist John Cosgriff.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhytidostea</span> Extinct clade of amphibians

Rhytidostea is a clade of stereospondyl temnospondyls. It was erected in 2000 to include several temnospondyl groups distinct from the "higher" group of capitosaurs, including lydekkerinids, brachyopoids, and rhytidosteids. Rhytidosteans first appeared in the Permian period and underwent an evolutionary radiation during the Induan stage of the Early Triassic. Along with capitosaurs, rhytidosteans comprise much of the larger suborder Stereospondyli. Rhytidostea has often been considered the sister group of the clade Capitosauria, but has been placed in various other phylogenetic positions. In many studies, members of Rhytidostea are split, with lydekkerinids having a more basal position among stereospondyls while rhytidosteids and brachyopoids form a group placed among the more derived trematosaurian stereospondyls.

This list of fossil amphibians described in 2018 is a list of new taxa of fossil amphibians that were described during the year 2018, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to amphibian paleontology that occurred in 2018.


Stenokranio is a genus of eryopid temnospondyl amphibian from the Permo-Carboniferous Remigiusberg Formation of Germany. It is represented by the type species, Stenokranio boldi, which was named for two specimens collected from the Remigiusberg quarry near Kusel, Saar–Nahe Basin, southwest Germany.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Eltink, Estevan; Schoch, Rainer R.; Langer, Max C. (2019-04-16). "Interrelationships, palaeobiogeography and early evolution of Stereospondylomorpha (Tetrapoda: Temnospondyli)". Journal of Iberian Geology. 45 (2): 251–267. doi:10.1007/s41513-019-00105-z. ISSN   1698-6180. S2CID   146595773.
  2. ↑ von Zittel, Karl A. (1888). Handbuch der Paläontologie. Abteilung 1. Paläozoologie Band III: Vertebrata (Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves). Munich & Leipzig: Oldenbourg. pp. 1–890.
  3. ↑ FRAAS, Eberhard. (1889). Die Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias. [With plates.]. OCLC   559337958.
  4. ↑ Warren, Anne; Rozefelds, Andrew C.; Bull, Stuart (2011-07-01). "Tupilakosaur-like vertebrae in Bothriceps australis, an Australian brachyopid stereospondyl". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (4): 738–753. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.590563. ISSN   0272-4634. S2CID   128505160.
  5. ↑ Danto, Marylène; Witzmann, Florian; Pierce, Stephanie E.; Fröbisch, Nadia B. (2017-05-18). "Intercentrum versus pleurocentrum growth in early tetrapods: A paleohistological approach". Journal of Morphology. 278 (9): 1262–1283. doi:10.1002/jmor.20709. ISSN   0362-2525. PMID   28517044. S2CID   38390403.
  6. ↑ Cisneros, Juan C.; Marsicano, Claudia; Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Smith, Roger M. H.; Richter, Martha; Fröbisch, Jörg; Kammerer, Christian F.; Sadleir, Rudyard W. (2015-11-05). "New Permian fauna from tropical Gondwana". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 8676. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.8676C. doi:10.1038/ncomms9676. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   4659833 . PMID   26537112.
  7. ↑ Panchen, A. L. (1959-01-29). "A new armoured amphibian from the Upper Permian of East Africa". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 242 (691): 207–281. Bibcode:1959RSPTB.242..207P. doi:10.1098/rstb.1959.0005. ISSN   2054-0280. S2CID   84580225.
  8. ↑ Piñeiro, Graciela; Ramos, Alejandro; Marsicano, Claudia (January 2012). "A rhinesuchid-like temnospondyl from the Permo-Triassic of Uruguay". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 11 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2011.07.007. ISSN   1631-0683.
  9. ↑ Piñeiro, Graciela; Marsicano, Claudia A.; Damiani, Damiani (2007). "Mandibles of mastodonsaurid temnospondyls from the Upper Permian–Lower Triassic of Uruguay". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 52: 695–703.
  10. ↑ Hart, Lachlan J.; Gee, Bryan M.; Smith, Patrick M.; McCurry, Matthew R. (2023-08-03). "A new chigutisaurid (Brachyopoidea, Temnospondyli) with soft tissue preservation from the Triassic Sydney Basin, New South Wales, Australia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2023.2232829 . ISSN   0272-4634.
  11. ↑ YATES, ADAM M.; WARREN, A. ANNE (January 2000). "The phylogeny of the 'higher' temnospondyls (Vertebrata: Choanata) and its implications for the monophyly and origins of the Stereospondyli". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 128 (1): 77–121. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb00650.x . ISSN   0024-4082.
  12. ↑ Warren, A. A.; Hutchinson, M. N. (1983-09-13). "The last Labyrinthodont? A new brachyopoid (Amphibia, Temnospondyli) from the early Jurassic Evergreen formation of Queensland, Australia". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences. 303 (1113): 1–62. Bibcode:1983RSPTB.303....1W. doi:10.1098/rstb.1983.0080. ISSN   0080-4622.
  13. ↑ Buffetaut, Eric; Tong, Haiyan; Suteethorn, Varavudh (1994-07-13). "First post-Triassic labyrinthodont amphibian in South East Asia: a temnospondyl intercentrum from the Jurassic of Thailand". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Monatshefte. 1994 (7): 385–390. doi:10.1127/njgpm/1994/1994/385. ISSN   0028-3630.
  14. ↑ Maisch, Michael W.; Matzke, Andreas T. (June 2005). "Temnospondyl amphibians from the Jurassic of the Southern Junggar Basin (NW China)". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 79 (2): 285–301. doi:10.1007/bf02990189. ISSN   0031-0220. S2CID   129446067.
  15. ↑ Warren, Anne; Rich, Thomas H.; Vickers-Rich, Patricia (1997). "The last labyrinthodonts". Palaeontographica, Abteilung A. 247: 1–24. doi:10.1127/pala/247/1997/1. S2CID   247068275.
  16. ↑ Maisch, Michael W.; Matzke, Andreas T.; Sun, Ge (2004-09-24). "A relict trematosauroid (Amphibia: Temnospondyli) from the Middle Jurassic of the Junggar Basin (NW China)". Naturwissenschaften. 91 (12): 589–593. Bibcode:2004NW.....91..589M. doi:10.1007/s00114-004-0569-x. ISSN   0028-1042. PMID   15448923. S2CID   24738999.
  17. ↑ Pardo, Jason D.; Small, Bryan J.; Huttenlocker, Adam K. (2017-07-03). "Stem caecilian from the Triassic of Colorado sheds light on the origins of Lissamphibia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (27): E5389–E5395. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E5389P. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1706752114 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   5502650 . PMID   28630337.
  18. ↑ Moodie, Roy L. (October 1908). "The lateral line system in extinct amphibia". Journal of Morphology. 19 (2): 511–540. doi:10.1002/jmor.1050190206. ISSN   0362-2525. S2CID   83822416.
  19. ↑ WITZMANN, FLORIAN; SCHOCH, RAINER R. (November 2006). "The Postcranium of Archegosaurus Decheni, and a Phylogenetic Analysis of Temnospondyl Postcrania". Palaeontology. 49 (6): 1211–1235. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00593.x . ISSN   0031-0239.
  20. ↑ Witzmann, Florian (July 2013). "Phylogenetic patterns of character evolution in the hyobranchial apparatus of early tetrapods". Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 104 (2): 145–167. doi:10.1017/s1755691013000480. ISSN   1755-6910. S2CID   85893747.
  21. ↑ Danto, Marylène; Witzmann, Florian; Fröbisch, Nadia B. (2016-04-13). "Vertebral Development in Paleozoic and Mesozoic Tetrapods Revealed by Paleohistological Data". PLOS ONE. 11 (4): e0152586. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1152586D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152586 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4830443 . PMID   27074015.
  22. ↑ FORTUNY, J.; MARCÉ-NOGUÉ, J.; DE ESTEBAN-TRIVIGNO, S.; GIL, L.; GALOBART, À. (2011-06-24). "Temnospondyli bite club: ecomorphological patterns of the most diverse group of early tetrapods". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 24 (9): 2040–2054. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02338.x . ISSN   1010-061X. PMID   21707813. S2CID   31680706.
  23. ↑ Mukherjee, Debarati; Ray, Sanghamitra; Sengupta, Dhurjati P. (2010-01-29). "Preliminary observations on the bone microstructure, growth patterns, and life habits of some Triassic temnospondyls from India". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (1): 78–93. doi: 10.1080/02724630903409121 . ISSN   0272-4634. S2CID   84252436.
  24. ↑ Mukherjee, Debarati; Sengupta, Dhurjati P.; Rakshit, Nibedita (2019-06-28). "New biological insights into the Middle Triassic capitosaurs from India as deduced from limb bone anatomy and histology". Papers in Palaeontology. 6 (1): 93–142. doi:10.1002/spp2.1263. ISSN   2056-2802. S2CID   198254051.
  25. ↑ JOHNSON, G. A. L. (July 1981). "Geographical Evolution from Laurasia to Pangaea". Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society. 43 (3): 221–252. doi:10.1144/pygs.43.3.221. ISSN   0044-0604.
  26. ↑ Hammer, W. R. (2013-03-18), "Paleoecology and Phylogeny of the Trematosauridae", Gondwana Six: Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Paleontology, Geophysical Monograph Series, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 73–83, doi:10.1029/gm041p0073, ISBN   978-1-118-66425-4 , retrieved 2020-09-23
  27. ↑ WITZMANN, FLORIAN; SCHOCH, RAINER R.; HILGER, ANDRÉ; KARDJILOV, NIKOLAY (2011-11-25). "Braincase, palatoquadrate and ear region of the plagiosaurid Gerrothorax pulcherrimus from the Middle Triassic of Germany". Palaeontology. 55 (1): 31–50. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01116.x . ISSN   0031-0239.
  28. ↑ Lucas, Spencer G.; Rinehart, Larry F.; Krainer, Karl; Spielmann, Justin A.; Heckert, Andrew B. (December 2010). "Taphonomy of the Lamy amphibian quarry: A Late Triassic bonebed in New Mexico, U.S.A." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 298 (3–4): 388–398. Bibcode:2010PPP...298..388L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.10.025. ISSN   0031-0182.
  29. ↑ Brusatte, S. L., Butler R. J., Mateus O., & Steyer S. J. (2015). A new species of Metoposaurus from the Late Triassic of Portugal and comments on the systematics and biogeography of metoposaurid temnospondyls. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. e912988., 2015:
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.