Taeniasis

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Taeniasis
Taenia saginata LifeCycle.gif
The life cycle of Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm
Specialty Infectious disease
Symptoms None, weight loss, abdominal pain [1]
Complications Pork tapeworm: cysticercosis [1]
Types Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia asiatica (Asian tapeworm) [2]
Causes Infection with adult tapeworms [2] [3]
Risk factors Eating contaminated undercooked pork or beef [1]
Diagnostic method Examination of stool samples [4]
PreventionProperly cooking meat [1]
Treatment Praziquantel, niclosamide [1]
Frequency50 million (with cysticercosis) [5]

Taeniasis is an infection within the intestines by adult tapeworms belonging to the genus Taenia . [2] [3] There are generally no or only mild symptoms. [2] Symptoms may occasionally include weight loss or abdominal pain. [1] Segments of tapeworm may be seen in the stool. [1] Complications of pork tapeworm may include cysticercosis. [1]

Contents

Types of Taenia that cause infections in humans include Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), and Taenia asiatica (Asian tapeworm). [2] Taenia saginata is due to eating contaminated undercooked beef while Taenia solium and Taenia asiatica is from contaminated undercooked pork. [2] Diagnosis is by examination of stool samples. [4]

Prevention is by properly cooking meat. [1] Treatment is generally with praziquantel, though niclosamide may also be used. [1] Together with cysticercosis, infections affect about 50 million people globally. [5] The disease is most common in the developing world. [1] In the United States fewer than 1,000 cases occur a year. [1]

Signs and symptoms

Taeniasis generally has few or no symptoms. [6] It takes about 8 weeks from infection for adult worms to form and can last for years without treatment. [6]

Infection may be suspected when a portion of the worm is passed in the stool. [4] It is not generally fatal. [7] [8] [9]

Pork tapeworm

Taenia solium adult Taenia solium.jpg
Taenia solium adult

Infection in the intestines by the adult T. solium worms is normally asymptomatic. Heavy infection can result in anaemia and indigestion.[ citation needed ]

A complication, known as cysticercosis, may occur if the eggs of the pork tapeworm are eaten. This typically occurs from vegetables or water contaminated by feces from someone with pork tapeworm taeniasis. The eggs enter the intestine where they develop into larvae which then enter the bloodstream and invade host tissues. This is the most frequent and severe disease caused by any tapeworm. It can lead to headaches, dizziness, seizures, dementia, hypertension, lesions in the brain, blindness, tumor-like growths, and low eosinophil levels. It is a cause of major neurological problems, such as hydrocephalus, paraplegy, meningitis, and death. [10]

Beef tapeworm

Taenia saginata infection is usually asymptomatic, but heavy infection causes weight loss, dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, headaches, nausea, constipation, chronic indigestion, and loss of appetite. It can cause antigen reaction that induce allergic reaction. [11] It is also a rare cause of ileus, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and cholangitis. [12]

Asian tapeworm

Taenia asiatica is also usually asymptomatic. It is unclear if T. asiatica can cause cysticercosis. [1] In pigs, the cysticercus can produce cysticercosis. Cysts develop in liver and lungs. (T. saginata does not cause cysticercosis.) [13]

Transmission

Taeniasis is contracted after eating undercooked pork or beef that contain the larvae. The adult worms develop and live in the lumen of the intestine. They acquire nutrients from the intestine. The gravid proglottids, body segments containing fertilised eggs, are released in the faeces.[ citation needed ]

If consumed by an intermediate host such as a cow or pig, they hatch within the duodenum to become larvae, penetrate through the intestinal wall into nearby blood vessels, and enter the bloodstream. Once they reach organs such as the skeletal muscles, liver or lungs, the larvae then develop into a cyst, a fluid-filled cysticercus. These contaminated tissues are then consumed through raw or undercooked meat. [7]

Cysticercosis occurs when contaminated food, water, or soil that contain T. solium eggs is eaten. [14] [15]

Diagnosis

Egg of T. solium Taenia egg.jpg
Egg of T. solium

Diagnosis of taeniasis is mainly using stool sample, particularly by identifying the eggs. However, this has limitation at the species level because tapeworms basically have similar eggs. Examination of the scolex or the gravid proglottids can resolve the exact species. [16] But body segments are not often available, therefore, laborious histological observation of the uterine branches and PCR detection of ribosomal 5.8S gene are sometimes necessary. [17] [18] Ziehl–Neelsen stain is also used for T. saginata and T. solium, in most cases only the former will stain, but the method is not entirely reliable. [19] Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is highly sensitive (~2.5 times that of multiplex PCR), without false positives, for differentiating the taenid species from faecal samples. [20]

To date the most relevant test for T. asiatica is by enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB). EITB can effectively identify asiatica from other taenid infections since the serological test indicates an immunoblot band of 21.5 kDa exhibited specifically by T. asiatica. [21] Even though it gives 100% sensitivity, it has not been tested with human sera for cross-reactivity, and it may show a high false positive result.[ citation needed ]

Prevention

Prevention efforts include properly cooking meat, treating active cases in humans, vaccinating and treating pigs against the disease, stricter meat-inspection standards, health education, improved sanitation, and improved pig raising practices. [1] [6]

Preventing human faeces from contaminating pig feeds also plays a role. Infection can be prevented with proper disposal of human faeces around pigs, cooking meat thoroughly and/or freezing the meat at −10 °C for 5 days. For human cysticercosis, contaminated hands are the primary cause, and especially concerning among food handlers. [7]

Proper cooking of meat is an effective prevention. For example, cooking (56 °C for 5 minutes) of beef viscera destroys cysticerci. Refrigeration, freezing (−10 °C for 9 days) or long periods of salting is also lethal to cysticerci. [11]

Treatment

Praziquantel is the treatment of choice. [22] Usual treatments are with praziquantel (5–10 mg/kg, single-administration) or niclosamide (adults and children over 6 years: 2 g, single-administration after a light breakfast, followed after 2 hours by a laxative; children aged 2–6 years: 1 g; children under 2 years: 500 mg). [11] One study showed albendazole is effective against animal beef tapeworm cysticercosis. [23] Mepacrine is quite effective but has adverse effects in humans. [24]

Epidemiology

The total global infection is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million people. [25] In the US, the incidence of infection is low, but 25% of cattle sold are still infected. [16]

Regions

Taeniasis is predominantly found in Asia, Africa, Latin America, particularly on farms in which pigs are exposed to human excrement. At a low level though, it occurs everywhere where beef and pork are eaten, even in countries with strict sanitation policies such as the United States. Taenia saginata is relatively common in Africa, some parts of Eastern Europe, [26] the Philippines, and Latin America. [27] It is most prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. [28] Taenia asiatica is restricted to East Asia, including Taiwan, Korea, Indonesia, Nepal, Thailand and China. [29] [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trichinosis</span> Parasitic disease due to invasion by Trichinella spp.

Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis, is a parasitic disease caused by roundworms of the Trichinella type. During the initial infection, invasion of the intestines can result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Migration of larvae to muscle, which occurs about a week after being infected, can cause swelling of the face, inflammation of the whites of the eyes, fever, muscle pains, and a rash. Minor infection may be without symptoms. Complications may include inflammation of heart muscle, central nervous system involvement, and inflammation of the lungs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cysticercosis</span> Tissue infection caused by the young form of the pork tapeworm

Cysticercosis is a tissue infection caused by the young form of the pork tapeworm. People may have few or no symptoms for years. In some cases, particularly in Asia, solid lumps of between one and two centimetres may develop under the skin. After months or years these lumps can become painful and swollen and then resolve. A specific form called neurocysticercosis, which affects the brain, can cause neurological symptoms. In developing countries this is one of the most common causes of seizures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Praziquantel</span> Medication

Praziquantel (PZQ), sold under the brandname Biltricide among others, is a medication used to treat a number of types of parasitic worm infections in mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish. In humans specifically, it is used to treat schistosomiasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, tapeworm infections, cysticercosis, echinococcosis, paragonimiasis, fasciolopsiasis, and fasciolosis. It should not be used for worm infections of the eye. It is taken by mouth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helminthiasis</span> Any macroparasitic disease caused by helminths

Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms. They often live in the gastrointestinal tract of their hosts, but they may also burrow into other organs, where they induce physiological damage.

<i>Taenia solium</i> Species of Cestoda

Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm, belongs to the cyclophyllid cestode family Taeniidae. It is found throughout the world and is most common in countries where pork is eaten. It is a tapeworm that uses humans as its definitive host and pigs as the intermediate or secondary hosts. It is transmitted to pigs through human feces that contain the parasite eggs and contaminate their fodder. Pigs ingest the eggs, which develop into larvae, then into oncospheres, and ultimately into infective tapeworm cysts, called cysticercus. Humans acquire the cysts through consumption of uncooked or under-cooked pork and the cysts grow into an adult worms in the small intestine.

<i>Taenia</i> (tapeworm) Genus of flatworms

Taenia is the type genus of the Taeniidae family of tapeworms. It includes some important parasites of livestock. Members of the genus are responsible for taeniasis and cysticercosis in humans, which are types of helminthiasis belonging to the group of neglected tropical diseases. More than 100 species are recorded. They are morphologically characterized by a ribbon-like body composed of a series of segments called proglottids; hence the name Taenia. The anterior end of the body is the scolex. Some members of the genus Taenia have an armed scolex ; of the two major human parasites, Taenia saginata has an unarmed scolex, while Taenia solium has an armed scolex.

<i>Taenia saginata</i> Species of flatworm

Taenia saginata, commonly known as the beef tapeworm, is a zoonotic tapeworm belonging to the order Cyclophyllidea and genus Taenia. It is an intestinal parasite in humans causing taeniasis and cysticercosis in cattle. Cattle are the intermediate hosts, where larval development occurs, while humans are definitive hosts harbouring the adult worms. It is found globally and most prevalently where cattle are raised and beef is consumed. It is relatively common in Africa, Europe, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Latin America. Humans are generally infected as a result of eating raw or undercooked beef which contains the infective larvae, called cysticerci. As hermaphrodites, each body segment called proglottid has complete sets of both male and female reproductive systems. Thus, reproduction is by self-fertilisation. From humans, embryonated eggs, called oncospheres, are released with faeces and are transmitted to cattle through contaminated fodder. Oncospheres develop inside muscle, liver, and lungs of cattle into infective cysticerci.

<i>Echinococcus granulosus</i> Species of flatworm

Echinococcus granulosus, also called the hydatid worm or dog tapeworm, is a cyclophyllid cestode that dwells in the small intestine of canids as an adult, but which has important intermediate hosts such as livestock and humans, where it causes cystic echinococcosis, also known as hydatid disease. The adult tapeworm ranges in length from 3 mm to 6 mm and has three proglottids ("segments") when intact—an immature proglottid, mature proglottid and a gravid proglottid. The average number of eggs per gravid proglottid is 823. Like all cyclophyllideans, E. granulosus has four suckers on its scolex ("head"), and E. granulosus also has a rostellum with hooks. Several strains of E. granulosus have been identified, and all but two are noted to be infective in humans.

<i>Taenia crassiceps</i> Species of Cestoda

Taenia crassiceps is a tapeworm in the family Taeniidae. It is a parasitic organism whose adult form infects the intestine of carnivores, like canids. It is related to Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm, and to Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm. It is commonly found in the Northern Hemisphere, especially throughout Canada and the northern United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taeniidae</span> Family of flatworms

The Taeniidae are a family of tapeworms. It is the largest family representing the order Cyclophyllidea. It includes many species of medical and veterinary importance, as Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, and Echinococcus granulosus. The Taeniidae are parasites of mammals and many are infectious to humans.

<i>Taenia pisiformis</i> Species of flatworm

Taenia pisiformis, commonly called the rabbit tapeworm, is an endoparasitic tapeworm which causes infection in lagomorphs, rodents, and carnivores. Adult T. pisiformis typically occur within the small intestines of the definitive hosts, the carnivores. Lagomorphs, the intermediate hosts, are infected by fecal contamination of grasses and other food sources by the definitive hosts. The larval stage is often referred to as Cysticercus pisiformis and is found on the livers and peritoneal cavities of the intermediate hosts. T. pisiformis can be found worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eucestoda</span> Subclass of flatworms

Eucestoda, commonly referred to as tapeworms, is the larger of the two subclasses of flatworms in the class Cestoda. Larvae have six posterior hooks on the scolex (head), in contrast to the ten-hooked Cestodaria. All tapeworms are endoparasites of vertebrates, living in the digestive tract or related ducts. Examples are the pork tapeworm with a human definitive host, and pigs as the secondary host, and Moniezia expansa, the definitive hosts of which are ruminants.

Sparganosis is a parasitic infection caused by the plerocercoid larvae of the genus Spirometra including S. mansoni, S. ranarum, S. mansonoides and S. erinacei. It was first described by Patrick Manson in 1882, and the first human case was reported by Charles Wardell Stiles from Florida in 1908. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of contaminated water, ingestion of a second intermediate host such as a frog or snake, or contact between a second intermediate host and an open wound or mucous membrane. Humans are the accidental hosts in the life cycle, while dogs, cats, and other mammals are definitive hosts. Copepods are the first intermediate hosts, and various amphibians and reptiles are second intermediate hosts.

Diphyllobothriasis is the infection caused by tapeworms of the genus Diphyllobothrium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cestoda</span> Class of flatworms

Cestoda is a class of parasitic worms in the flatworm phylum (Platyhelminthes). Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass Eucestoda; they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as tapeworms. Their bodies consist of many similar units known as proglottids—essentially packages of eggs which are regularly shed into the environment to infect other organisms. Species of the other subclass, Cestodaria, are mainly fish infecting parasites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coenurosis in humans</span> Medical condition

Coenurosis is a parasitic infection that results when humans ingest the eggs of dog tapeworm species Taenia multiceps, T. serialis, T. brauni, or T. glomerata.

Taenia asiatica, commonly known as Asian taenia or Asian tapeworm, is a parasitic tapeworm of humans and pigs. It is one of the three species of Taenia infecting humans and causes taeniasis. Discovered only in 1980s from Taiwan and other East Asian countries as an unusual species, it is so notoriously similar to Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, that it was for a time regarded as a slightly different strain. But anomaly arose as the tapeworm is not of cattle origin, but of pigs. Morphological details also showed significant variations, such as presence of rostellar hooks, shorter body, and fewer body segments. The scientific name designated was then Asian T. saginata. But the taxonomic consensus turns out to be that it is a unique species. It was in 1993 that two Korean parasitologists, Keeseon S. Eom and Han Jong Rim, provided the biological bases for classifying it into a separate species. The use of mitochondrial genome sequence and molecular phylogeny in the late 2000s established the taxonomic status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friedrich Küchenmeister</span>

Gottlieb Heinrich Friedrich Küchenmeister was a German physician.

<i>Taenia hydatigena</i> Species of flatworm

Taenia hydatigena is one of the adult forms of the canine and feline tapeworm. This infection has a worldwide geographic distribution. Humans with taeniasis can infect other humans or animal intermediate hosts by eggs and gravid proglottids passed in the feces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cysticercus</span> Larval tapeworm

Cysticercus is a scientific name given to the young tapeworms (larvae) belonging to the genus Taenia. It is a small, sac-like vesicle resembling a bladder; hence, it is also known as bladder worm. It is filled with fluid, in which the main body of the larva, called scolex, resides. It normally develops from the eggs, which are ingested by the intermediate hosts, such as pigs and cattle. The tissue infection is called cysticercosis. Inside such hosts, they settle in the muscles. When humans eat raw or undercooked pork or beef that is contaminated with cysticerci, the larvae grow into adult worms inside the intestine. Under certain circumstances, specifically for the pork tapeworm, the eggs can be accidentally eaten by humans through contaminated foodstuffs. In such case, the eggs hatch inside the body, generally moving to muscles as well as inside the brain. Such brain infection can lead to a serious medical condition called neurocysticercosis. This disease is the leading cause of acquired epilepsy.

References

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  12. ↑ Uygur-Bayramiçli, O; Ak, O; Dabak, R; Demirhan, G; Ozer, S (2012). "Taenia saginata a rare cause of acute cholangitis: a case report". Acta Clinica Belgica. 67 (6): 436–7. doi:10.1179/ACB.67.6.2062709. PMID   23340150.
  13. ↑ Galán-Puchades, M.T.; Fuentes, M.V. (2008). "Taenia asiatica and pig cysticercosis". Veterinary Parasitology. 157 (1–2): 160–161. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.008. PMID   18752896.
  14. ↑ Roberts, Larry S.; Janovy, John Jr. (2009). Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of Parasitology (8 ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp.  348–351. ISBN   978-0-07-302827-9.
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  16. 1 2 Roberts, Larry S.; Janovy, John Jr. (2009). Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of parasitology (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-128458-5.
  17. ↑ González LM, Montero E, Harrison LJ, Parkhouse RM, Garate T (2000). "Differential diagnosis of Taenia saginata and Taenia solium infection by PCR". J Clin Microbiol. 38 (2): 737–744. doi:10.1128/JCM.38.2.737-744.2000. PMC   86191 . PMID   10655377.
  18. ↑ Zarlenga DS. (1991). "The differentiation of a newly described Asian taeniid from Taenia saginata using enzymatically amplified non-transcribed ribosomal DNA repeat sequences". Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 22 (suppl): 251–255. PMID   1822899.
  19. ↑ Jimenez JA, Rodriguez S, Moyano LM, Castillo Y, García HH (2010). "Differentiating Taenia eggs found in human stools - Does Ziehl Neelsen staining help?". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 15 (9): 1077–1081. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02579.x. PMC   3428859 . PMID   20579318.
  20. ↑ Nkouawa, A; Sako, Y; Li, T; Chen, X; Wandra, T; Swastika, IK; Nakao, M; Yanagida, T; Nakaya, K; Qiu, D; Ito, A (2010). "Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method using fecal specimens for differential detection of Taenia species from humans". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 48 (9): 3350–2. doi:10.1128/JCM.00697-10. PMC   2937673 . PMID   20631114.
  21. ↑ Jeon, Hyeong-Kyu; Eom, Keeseon S. (2009). "Immunoblot Patterns of Taenia asiatica Taeniasis". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 47 (1): 73–7. doi:10.3347/kjp.2009.47.1.73. PMC   2655338 . PMID   19290097.
  22. ↑ "CDC - DPDX Homepage". 2019-05-14. Archived from the original on 2013-07-10. Retrieved 2014-11-28.
  23. ↑ Lopes WD, Cruz BC, Soares VE, Nunes JL, Teixeira WF, Maciel WG, Buzzulini C, Pereira JC, Felippelli G, Soccol VT, de Oliveira GP, da Costa AJ (2014). "Historic of therapeutic efficacy of albendazol sulphoxide administered in different routes, dosages and treatment schemes, against Taenia saginata cysticercus in cattle experimentally infected". Experimental Parasitology. 137 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2013.11.007. PMID   24309372.
  24. ↑ Ooi, Hong Kean; Ho, Chau-Mei; Chung, Wen-Cheng (2013). "Historical overview of Taenia asiatica in Taiwan". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 51 (1): 31–6. doi:10.3347/kjp.2013.51.1.31. PMC   3587746 . PMID   23467308.
  25. ↑ Eckert, J. (2005). "Helminths". In Kayser, F.H.; Bienz, K.A.; Eckert, J.; Zinkernagel, R.M. (eds.). Medical Microbiology. Stuttgart: Thieme. pp. 560–562. ISBN   9781588902450.
  26. ↑ Trevisan, C.; Sotiraki, S.; Laranjo-González, M.; Dermauw, V.; Wang, Z.; Kärssin, A.; Cvetkovikj, A.; Winkler, A.S.; Abraham, A.; Bobić, B.; Lassen, B.; Cretu, C.M.; Vasile, C.; Arvanitis, D.; Deksne, G.; Boro, I.; Kucsera, I.; Karamon, J.; Stefanovska, J.; Koudela, B.; Pavlova, M.J.; Varady, V.; Pavlak, M.; Šarkūnas, M.; Kaminski, M.; Djurković-Djaković, O.; Jokelainen, P.; Jan, D.S.; Schmidt, V.; Dakić, Z.; Gabriël, S.; Dorny, P.; Devleesschauwer, B. (2018). "Epidemiology of taeniosis/cysticercosis in Europe, a systematic review: eastern Europe" (PDF). Parasit Vectors. 11 (1): 569. doi: 10.1186/s13071-018-3153-5 . PMC   6208121 . PMID   30376899.
  27. ↑ Somers, Kenneth D.; Morse, Stephen A. (2010). Lange Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Flash Cards (2nd ed.). New York: Lange Medical Books/ McGraw-Hill. pp. 184–186. ISBN   9780071628792.
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  29. ↑ Eom, Keeseon S.; Jeon, Hyeong-Kyu; Rim, Han-Jong (2009). "Geographical distribution of Taenia asiatica and related species". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 47 (Suppl): S115–24. doi:10.3347/kjp.2009.47.S.S115. PMC   2769216 . PMID   19885327.
  30. ↑ Ale, Anita; Victor, Bjorn; Praet, Nicolas; Gabriël, Sarah; Speybroeck, Niko; Dorny, Pierre; Devleesschauwer, Brecht (2014). "Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Taenia asiatica: a systematic review". Parasites & Vectors. 7 (1): 45. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-45 . PMC   3900737 . PMID   24450957.
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