Indigestion

Last updated
Indigestion
Other namesDyspepsia
Specialty Gastroenterology
Symptoms Upper abdominal pain [1]
FrequencyCommon [1]

Indigestion, also known as dyspepsia or upset stomach, is a condition of impaired digestion. [2] Symptoms may include upper abdominal fullness, heartburn, nausea, belching, or upper abdominal pain. [3] People may also experience feeling full earlier than expected when eating. [4] Indigestion is relatively common, affecting 20% of people at some point during their life, and is frequently caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. [1] [5]

Contents

Indigestion is subcategorized as "organic" or "functional", but making the diagnosis can prove challenging for physicians. [6] Organic indigestion is the result of an underlying disease, such as gastritis, peptic ulcer disease (an ulcer of the stomach or duodenum), or cancer. [6] Functional indigestion (previously called non-ulcer dyspepsia) [7] is indigestion without evidence of underlying disease. [8] Functional indigestion is estimated to affect about 15% of the general population in western countries and accounts for a majority of dyspepsia cases. [7] [9]

In patients who are 60 or older, or who have worrisome symptoms such as trouble swallowing, weight loss, or blood loss, an endoscopy (a procedure whereby a camera attached to a flexible tube is inserted down the throat and into the stomach) is recommended to further assess and find a potential cause. [1] In patients younger than 60 years of age, testing for the bacteria H. pylori and if positive, treatment of the infection is recommended. [1] More details about how indigestion is diagnosed and treated can be found below.

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms

Patients experiencing indigestion likely report one, a combination of, or all of the following symptoms: [6] [10]

Signs

There may be abdominal tenderness, but this finding is nonspecific and is not required to make a diagnosis. [10] However, there are physical exam signs that may point to a different diagnosis and underlying cause for a patient's reported discomfort. A positive Carnett sign (focal tenderness that increases with abdominal wall contraction and palpation) suggests an etiology involving the abdominal wall musculature. Cutaneous dermatomal distribution of pain may suggest a thoracic polyradiculopathy. Tenderness to palpation over the right upper quadrant, or Murphy's sign, may suggest cholecystitis or gallbladder inflammation. [11]

Alarm symptoms

Also known as Alarm features, alert features, red flags, or warning signs in gastrointestinal (GI) literature.

Alarm features are thought to be associated with serious gastroenterologic disease and include: [12]

Cause

Indigestion is a diagnosis related to a combination of symptoms that can be attributed to "organic" or "functional" causes. [13] Organic dyspepsia should have pathological findings upon endoscopy, like an ulcer in the stomach lining in peptic ulcer disease. [13] Functional dyspepsia is unlikely to be detected on endoscopy but can be broken down into two subtypes, epigastric pain syndrome (EPS) and post-prandial distress syndrome (PDS). [14] In addition, indigestion could be caused by medications, food, or other disease processes.

Psychosomatic and cognitive factors are important in the evaluation of people with chronic dyspepsia. Studies have shown a high occurrence of mental disorders, notably anxiety and depression, amongst patients with dyspepsia; however, there is little evidence to prove causation. [15]

Organic dyspepsia

Esophagitis

Esophagitis is an inflammation of the esophagus, most commonly caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). [6] It is defined by the sensation of "heartburn" or a burning sensation in the chest as a result of inappropriate relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter at the site where the esophagus connects to the stomach. It is often treated with proton pump inhibitors. If left untreated, the chronic damage to the esophageal tissues poses a risk of developing cancer. [6] A meta-analysis showed risk factors for developing GERD included age equal to or greater than 50, smoking, the use of non-steroid anti-inflammatory medications, and obesity. [16]

Gastritis

Common causes of gastritis include peptic ulcer disease, infection, or medications.

Peptic ulcer disease

Gastric and duodenal ulcers are the defining feature of peptic ulcer disease (PUD). PUD is most commonly caused by an infection with H. pylori or NSAID use. [17]

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection

The role of H. pylori in functional dyspepsia is controversial, and treatment for H. pylori may not lead to complete improvement of a patient's dyspepsia. [6] However, a recent systemic review and meta-analysis of 29 studies published in 2022 suggests that successful treatment of H. pylori modestly improves indigestion symptoms. [18]

Pancreatobiliary disease

These include cholelithiasis, chronic pancreatitis, and pancreatic cancer.

Duodenal micro-inflammation

Duodenal micro-inflammation caused by an altered duodenal gut microbiota, reactions to foods (mainly gluten proteins) or infections may induce dyspepsia symptoms in a subset of people. [19]

Functional dyspepsia

Functional dyspepsia is a common cause of chronic heartburn. More than 70% of people have no obvious organic cause for their symptoms after evaluation. [13] Symptoms may arise from a complex interaction of increased visceral afferent sensitivity, gastric delayed emptying (gastroparesis) or impaired accommodation to food. Diagnostic criteria for functional dyspepsia categorize it into two subtypes by symptom: epigastric pain syndrome and post-prandial distress syndrome. [14] Anxiety is also associated with functional dyspepsia. In some people, it appears before the onset of gut symptoms; in other cases, anxiety develops after onset of the disorder, which suggests that a gut-driven brain disorder may be a possible cause. [14] Although benign, these symptoms may be chronic and difficult to treat. [20]

Epigastric pain syndrome (EPS)

Defined by stomach pain and/or burning that interferes with daily life, without any evidence of organic disease. [21]

Post-prandial distress syndrome (PDS)

Defined by post-prandial fullness or early satiation that interferes with daily life, without any evidence of organic disease. [21]

Food, herb, or drug intolerance

Acute, self-limited dyspepsia may be caused by overeating, eating too quickly, eating high-fat foods, eating during stressful situations, or drinking too much alcohol or coffee. Many medications cause dyspepsia, including aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antibiotics (metronidazole, macrolides), bronchodilators (theophylline), diabetes drugs (acarbose, metformin, Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, amylin analogs, GLP-1 receptor antagonists), antihypertensive medications (angiotensin converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors, Angiotensin II receptor antagonist), cholesterol-lowering agents (niacin, fibrates), neuropsychiatric medications (cholinesterase inhibitors [donepezil, rivastigmine]), SSRIs (fluoxetine, sertraline), serotonin-norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitors (venlafaxine, duloxetine), Parkinson drugs (Dopamine agonist, monoamine oxidase [MAO]-B inhibitors), weight-loss medications (orlistat), corticosteroids, estrogens, digoxin, iron, and opioids. [22] [23] Common herbs have also been shown to cause indigestion, like white willow berry, garlic, ginkgo, chaste tree berry, saw palmetto, and feverfew. [22] Studies have shown that wheat and dietary fats can contribute to indigestion and suggest foods high in short-chain carbohydrates (FODMAP) may be associated with dyspepsia. [24] This suggests reducing or consuming a gluten-free, low-fat, and/or FODMAP diet may improve symptoms. [24] [25] Additionally, some people may experience dyspepsia when eating certain spices or spicy food as well as foods like peppers, chocolate, citrus, and fish. [6]

Systemic diseases

There are a number of systemic diseases that may involve dyspepsia, including coronary disease, congestive heart failure, diabetes mellitus, hyperparathyroidism, thyroid disease, and chronic kidney disease.

Post-infectious causes of dyspepsia

Gastroenteritis increases the risk of developing chronic dyspepsia. Post-infectious dyspepsia is the term given when dyspepsia occurs after an acute gastroenteritis infection. It is believed that the underlying causes of post-infectious IBS and post-infectious dyspepsia may be similar and represent different aspects of the same pathophysiology. [26]

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology for indigestion is not well understood; however, there are many theories. For example, there are studies that suggest a gut-brain interaction, as patients who received an antibiotic saw a reduction in their indigestion symptoms. [27] Other theories propose issues with gut motility, a hypersensitivity of gut viscera, and imbalance of the microbiome. [9] A genetic predisposition is plausible, but there is limited evidence to support this theory. [28]

Diagnosis

Simplified diagram of how indigestion is diagnosed and treatment(s) determined Diagnostic and Treatment Evaluation.jpg
Simplified diagram of how indigestion is diagnosed and treatment(s) determined

A diagnosis for indigestion is based on symptoms, with a possible need for more diagnostic tests. In younger patients (less than 60 years of age) without red flags (e.g., weight loss), it is recommended to test for H. pylori noninvasively, followed by treatment with antibiotics in those who test positively. A negative test warrants discussing additional treatments, like proton pump inhibitors, with your doctor. [1] An upper GI endoscopy may also be recommended. [29] In older patients (60 or older), an endoscopy is often the next step in finding out the cause of newly onset indigestion regardless of the presence of alarm symptoms. [1] However, for all patients regardless of age, an official diagnosis requires symptoms to have started at least 6 months ago with a frequency of at least once a week over the last 3 months. [10]

Treatment

Functional and organic dyspepsia have similar treatments. Traditional therapies used for this diagnosis include lifestyle modification (e.g., diet), antacids, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), H2-receptor antagonists (H2-RAs), prokinetic agents, and antiflatulents. PPIs and H2-RAs are often first-line therapies for treating dyspepsia, having shown to be better than placebo medications. [30] Anti-depressants, notably tricyclic antidepressants, have been tested on patients who do not respond to traditional therapies with some benefits, though the research is of poor quality and adverse affects are noted. [30]

Diet

A lifestyle change that may help with indigestion is a change in diet, such as a stable and consistent eating schedule and slowing the pace of eating. [31] Additionally, there are studies that support a reduction in the consumption of fats may also alleviate dyspepsia. [31] While some studies suggest a correlation between dyspepsia and celiac disease, not everyone with indigestion needs to refrain from gluten in their diet. However, a gluten-free diet can relieve the symptoms in some patients without celiac disease. [19] [31] Lastly, a FODMAPs diet or diet low/free from certain complex sugars and sugar alcohols has also been shown to be potentially beneficial in patients with indigestion. [31]

Acid suppression

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) were found to be better than placebo in a literature review, especially when looking at long-term symptom reduction. [32] [33] H2 receptor antagonists (H2-RAs) have similar effect on symptoms reduction when compared to PPIs. [32] However, there is little evidence to support prokinetic agents are an appropriate treatment for dyspepsia. [34]

Currently, PPIs are FDA indicated for erosive esophagitis, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, eradication of H. pylori, duodenal and gastric ulcers, and NSAID-induced ulcer healing and prevention, but not functional dyspepsia. [35]

Prokinetics

Prokinetics (medications focused on increasing gut motility), such as metoclopramide or erythromycin, has a history of use as a secondary treatment for dyspepsia. [6] While multiple studies show that it is more effective than placebo, there are multiple concerns about the side effects surrounding the long-term use of these medications. [6]

Alternative medicine

A 2021 meta-analysis concluded that herbal remedies, like menthacarin (a combination of peppermint and caraway oils), ginger, artichoke, licorice, and jollab (a combination of rose water, saffron, and candy sugar), may be as beneficial as conventional therapies when treating dyspepsia symptoms. [36] However, it is important to note that herbal products are not regulated by the FDA and therefore it is difficult to assess the quality and safety of the ingredients found in alternative medications. [37]

Epidemiology

Indigestion is a common problem and frequent reason for primary care physicians to refer patients to GI specialists. [38] Worldwide, dyspepsia affects about a third of the population. [39] It can affect a person's quality of life even if the symptoms within themselves are usually not life-threatening. Additionally, the financial burden on the patient and healthcare system is costly - patients with dyspepsia were more likely to have lower work productivity and higher healthcare costs compared to those without indigestion. [40] Risk factors include NSAID-use, H. pylori infection, and smoking. [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proton-pump inhibitor</span> Class of drugs for reducing stomach acid

Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are a class of medications that cause a profound and prolonged reduction of stomach acid production. They do so by irreversibly inhibiting the stomach's H+/K+ ATPase proton pump.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulcerative colitis</span> Inflammatory bowel disease that causes ulcers in the colon

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is one of the two types of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with the other type being Crohn's disease. It is a long-term condition that results in inflammation and ulcers of the colon and rectum. The primary symptoms of active disease are abdominal pain and diarrhea mixed with blood (hematochezia). Weight loss, fever, and anemia may also occur. Often, symptoms come on slowly and can range from mild to severe. Symptoms typically occur intermittently with periods of no symptoms between flares. Complications may include abnormal dilation of the colon (megacolon), inflammation of the eye, joints, or liver, and colon cancer.

Peptic ulcer disease is a break in the inner lining of the stomach, the first part of the small intestine, or sometimes the lower esophagus. An ulcer in the stomach is called a gastric ulcer, while one in the first part of the intestines is a duodenal ulcer. The most common symptoms of a duodenal ulcer are waking at night with upper abdominal pain, and upper abdominal pain that improves with eating. With a gastric ulcer, the pain may worsen with eating. The pain is often described as a burning or dull ache. Other symptoms include belching, vomiting, weight loss, or poor appetite. About a third of older people with peptic ulcers have no symptoms. Complications may include bleeding, perforation, and blockage of the stomach. Bleeding occurs in as many as 15% of cases.

Heartburn, also known as pyrosis, cardialgia or acid indigestion, is a burning sensation in the central chest or upper central abdomen. Heartburn is usually due to regurgitation of gastric acid into the esophagus. It is the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastroesophageal reflux disease</span> Medical condition

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is a chronic upper gastrointestinal disease in which stomach content persistently and regularly flows up into the esophagus, resulting in symptoms and/or complications. Symptoms include dental corrosion, dysphagia, heartburn, odynophagia, regurgitation, non-cardiac chest pain, extraesophageal symptoms such as chronic cough, hoarseness, reflux-induced laryngitis, or asthma. In the long term, and when not treated, complications such as esophagitis, esophageal stricture, and Barrett's esophagus may arise.

<i>Helicobacter pylori</i> Species of bacteria

Helicobacter pylori, previously known as Campylobacter pylori, is a gram-negative, flagellated, helical bacterium. Mutants can have a rod or curved rod shape, and these are less effective. Its helical body is thought to have evolved in order to penetrate the mucous lining of the stomach, helped by its flagella, and thereby establish infection. The bacterium was first identified as the causal agent of gastric ulcers in 1983 by the Australian doctors Barry Marshall and Robin Warren.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irritable bowel syndrome</span> Functional gastrointestinal disorder

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by a group of symptoms that commonly include abdominal pain, abdominal bloating and changes in the consistency of bowel movements. These symptoms may occur over a long time, sometimes for years. IBS can negatively affect quality of life and may result in missed school or work or reduced productivity at work. Disorders such as anxiety, major depression, and chronic fatigue syndrome are common among people with IBS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper gastrointestinal bleeding</span> Medical condition

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is gastrointestinal bleeding (hemorrhage) in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit or in altered form as black stool. Depending on the amount of the blood loss, symptoms may include shock.

Coffee ground vomitus refers to a particular appearance of vomit. Within organic heme molecules of red blood cells is the element iron, which oxidizes following exposure to gastric acid. This reaction causes the vomitus to look like ground coffee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdominal pain</span> Stomach aches

Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, is a symptom associated with both non-serious and serious medical issues. Since the abdomen contains most of the body's vital organs, it can be an indicator of a wide variety of diseases. Given that, approaching the examination of a person and planning of a differential diagnosis is extremely important.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Esomeprazole</span> Medication which reduces stomach acid

Esomeprazole, sold under the brand name Nexium [or Neksium] among others, is a medication which reduces stomach acid. It is used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Its effectiveness is similar to that of other proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). It is taken by mouth or injection into a vein.

Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID), also known as disorders of gut–brain interaction, include a number of separate idiopathic disorders which affect different parts of the gastrointestinal tract and involve visceral hypersensitivity and motility disturbances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastrointestinal bleeding</span> Medical condition

Gastrointestinal bleeding, also called gastrointestinal hemorrhage (GIB), is all forms of bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the rectum. When there is significant blood loss over a short time, symptoms may include vomiting red blood, vomiting black blood, bloody stool, or black stool. Small amounts of bleeding over a long time may cause iron-deficiency anemia resulting in feeling tired or heart-related chest pain. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, shortness of breath, pale skin, or passing out. Sometimes in those with small amounts of bleeding no symptoms may be present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastritis</span> Stomach disease

Gastritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It may occur as a short episode or may be of a long duration. There may be no symptoms but, when symptoms are present, the most common is upper abdominal pain. Other possible symptoms include nausea and vomiting, bloating, loss of appetite and heartburn. Complications may include stomach bleeding, stomach ulcers, and stomach tumors. When due to autoimmune problems, low red blood cells due to not enough vitamin B12 may occur, a condition known as pernicious anemia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Achlorhydria</span> Medical condition

Achlorhydria and hypochlorhydria refer to states where the production of hydrochloric acid in gastric secretions of the stomach and other digestive organs is absent or low, respectively. It is associated with various other medical problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastrointestinal disease</span> Medical condition

Gastrointestinal diseases refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum, and the accessory organs of digestion, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastrinoma</span> Medical condition

Gastrinomas are neuroendocrine tumors (NETs), usually located in the duodenum or pancreas, that secrete gastrin and cause a clinical syndrome known as Zollinger–Ellison syndrome (ZES). A large number of gastrinomas develop in the pancreas or duodenum, with near-equal frequency, and approximately 10% arise as primary neoplasms in lymph nodes of the pancreaticoduodenal region.

A stress ulcer is a single or multiple mucosal defect usually caused by physiological stress which can become complicated by upper gastrointestinal bleeding. These ulcers can be caused by shock, sepsis, trauma or other conditions and are found in patients with chronic illnesses. These ulcers are a significant issue in patients in critical and intensive care.

Helicobacter pylori eradication protocols is a standard name for all treatment protocols for peptic ulcers and gastritis in the presence of Helicobacter pylori infection. The primary goal of the treatment is not only temporary relief of symptoms but also total elimination of H. pylori infection. Patients with active duodenal or gastric ulcers and those with a prior ulcer history should be tested for H. pylori. Appropriate therapy should be given for eradication. Patients with MALT lymphoma should also be tested and treated for H. pylori since eradication of this infection can induce remission in many patients when the tumor is limited to the stomach. Several consensus conferences, including the Maastricht Consensus Report, recommend testing and treating several other groups of patients but there is limited evidence of benefit. This includes patients diagnosed with gastric adenocarcinoma, patients found to have atrophic gastritis or intestinal metaplasia, as well as first-degree relatives of patients with gastric adenocarcinoma since the relatives themselves are at increased risk of gastric cancer partly due to the intrafamilial transmission of H. pylori. To date, it remains controversial whether to test and treat all patients with functional dyspepsia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, or other non-GI disorders as well as asymptomatic individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acid peptic diseases</span> Overview of the acid peptic diseases of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract

Acid peptic diseases, such as peptic ulcers, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, and gastroesophageal reflux disease, are caused by distinct but overlapping pathogenic mechanisms involving acid effects on mucosal defense. Acid reflux damages the esophageal mucosa and may also cause laryngeal tissue injury, leading to the development of pulmonary symptoms.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Eusebi, Leonardo H; Black, Christopher J; Howden, Colin W; Ford, Alexander C (11 December 2019). "Effectiveness of management strategies for uninvestigated dyspepsia: systematic review and network meta-analysis". BMJ. 367: l6483. doi: 10.1136/bmj.l6483 . PMC   7190054 . PMID   31826881.
  2. ↑ "dyspepsia" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  3. ↑ Duvnjak, Marko (2011). Dyspepsia in clinical practice (1. Aufl. ed.). New York: Springer. p. 2. ISBN   9781441917300.
  4. ↑ Talley NJ, Vakil N (October 2005). "Guidelines for the management of dyspepsia". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100 (10): 2324–37. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.00225.x . PMID   16181387. S2CID   16499689.
  5. ↑ Zajac, P; Holbrook, A; Super, ME; Vogt, M (March–April 2013). "An overview: Current clinical guidelines for the evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, and management of dyspepsia". Osteopathic Family Physician. 5 (2): 79–85. doi:10.1016/j.osfp.2012.10.005.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Greenberger, Norton; Blumberg, R.S.; Burakoff, Robert (2016). Current diagnosis & treatment. Gastroenterology, hepatology, and endoscopy (3 ed.). New York. ISBN   978-1-259-25097-2. OCLC   925478002.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. 1 2 Saad RJ, Chey WD (August 2006). "Review article: current and emerging therapies for functional dyspepsia" (PDF). Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24 (3): 475–92. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.03005.x . hdl:2027.42/74835. PMID   16886913.
  8. ↑ van Kerkhoven LA, van Rossum LG, van Oijen MG, Tan AC, Laheij RJ, Jansen JB (September 2006). "Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy does not reassure people with functional dyspepsia" (PDF). Endoscopy. 38 (9): 879–85. doi:10.1055/s-2006-944661. PMID   16981103. S2CID   260135014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27.
  9. 1 2 Ford, Alexander C.; Mahadeva, Sanjiv; Carbone, M. Florencia; Lacy, Brian E.; Talley, Nicholas J. (2020-11-21). "Functional dyspepsia". The Lancet. 396 (10263): 1689–1702. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30469-4. ISSN   0140-6736. PMID   33049222. S2CID   222254300.
  10. 1 2 3 "Rome IV Criteria". Rome Foundation. Retrieved 2022-01-19.
  11. ↑ Flier, SN; S, Rose (2006). "Is functional dyspepsia of particular concern in women? A review of gender differences in epidemiology, pathophysiologic mechanism, clinical presentation and management". Am J Gastroenterol. 101 (12 Suppl): S644–53. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.01015.x. PMID   17177870. S2CID   27922893.
  12. ↑ Vakil, Nimish (2006). "Limited Value of Alarm Features in the Diagnosis of Upper Gastrointestinal Malignancy: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Gastroenterology. 131 (2): 390–401. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2006.04.029. PMID   16890592.
  13. 1 2 3 Barberio, Brigida; Mahadeva, Sanjiv; Black, Christopher J.; Savarino, Edoardo V.; Ford, Alexander C. (2020-07-28). "Systematic review with meta-analysis: global prevalence of uninvestigated dyspepsia according to the Rome criteria". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 52 (5): 762–773. doi:10.1111/apt.16006. ISSN   0269-2813. PMID   32852839. S2CID   221344221.
  14. 1 2 3 Sayuk, Gregory S.; Gyawali, C. Prakash (2020-09-01). "Functional Dyspepsia: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches". Drugs. 80 (13): 1319–1336. doi:10.1007/s40265-020-01362-4. ISSN   1179-1950. PMID   32691294. S2CID   220656815.
  15. ↑ Holtmann, Gerald; Shah, Ayesha; Morrison, Mark (2017). "Pathophysiology of Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: A Holistic Overview". Digestive Diseases. 35 (S1): 5–13. doi: 10.1159/000485409 . ISSN   0257-2753. PMID   29421808. S2CID   3556796.
  16. ↑ Eusebi, Leonardo H.; Ratnakumaran, Raguprakash; Yuan, Yuhong; Solaymani-Dodaran, Masoud; Bazzoli, Franco; Ford, Alexander C. (March 2018). "Global prevalence of, and risk factors for, gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms: a meta-analysis". Gut. 67 (3): 430–440. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313589. ISSN   1468-3288. PMID   28232473. S2CID   3496003.
  17. ↑ Fashner, Julia; Gitu, Alfred C. (2015-02-15). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease and H. pylori Infection". American Family Physician. 91 (4): 236–242. ISSN   1532-0650. PMID   25955624.
  18. ↑ Ford, Alexander C.; Tsipotis, Evangelos; Yuan, Yuhong; Leontiadis, Grigorios I.; Moayyedi, Paul (2022-01-12). "Efficacy of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy for functional dyspepsia: updated systematic review and meta-analysis". Gut. 71 (10): gutjnl–2021–326583. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2021-326583. ISSN   1468-3288. PMID   35022266. S2CID   245922275.
  19. 1 2 Jung HK, Talley NJ (2018). "Role of the Duodenum in the Pathogenesis of Functional Dyspepsia: A Paradigm Shift". J Neurogastroenterol Motil (Review). 24 (3): 345–354. doi:10.5056/jnm18060. PMC   6034675 . PMID   29791992.
  20. ↑ Talley NJ, Ford AC (Nov 5, 2015). "Functional Dyspepsia" (PDF). N Engl J Med (Review). 373 (19): 1853–63. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1501505. PMID   26535514.
  21. 1 2 Stanghellini, Vincenzo; Chan, Francis K. L.; Hasler, William L.; Malagelada, Juan R.; Suzuki, Hidekazu; Tack, Jan; Talley, Nicholas J. (May 2016). "Gastroduodenal Disorders". Gastroenterology. 150 (6): 1380–1392. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2016.02.011. ISSN   1528-0012. PMID   27147122.
  22. 1 2 Mounsey, Anne; Barzin, Amir; Rietz, Ashley (2020-01-15). "Functional Dyspepsia: Evaluation and Management". American Family Physician. 101 (2): 84–88. ISSN   1532-0650. PMID   31939638.
  23. ↑ Ford AC, Moayyedi P (2013). "Dysepsia". BMJ. 347: f5059. doi:10.1136/bmj.f5059. PMID   23990632. S2CID   220190440. Archived from the original on 2014-12-21. Retrieved 2014-12-21.
  24. 1 2 Duncanson, K. R.; Talley, N. J.; Walker, M. M.; Burrows, T. L. (June 2018). "Food and functional dyspepsia: a systematic review". Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 31 (3): 390–407. doi:10.1111/jhn.12506. ISSN   1365-277X. PMID   28913843. S2CID   22800900.
  25. ↑ Duncanson KR, Talley NJ, Walker MM, Burrows TL (2017). "Food and functional dyspepsia: a systematic review". J Hum Nutr Diet (Systematic Review). 31 (3): 390–407. doi:10.1111/jhn.12506. PMID   28913843. S2CID   22800900.
  26. ↑ Futagami S, Itoh T, Sakamoto C (2015). "Systematic review with meta-analysis: post-infectious functional dyspepsia". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 41 (2): 177–88. doi: 10.1111/apt.13006 . PMID   25348873.
  27. ↑ Tan, V. P. Y.; Liu, K. S. H.; Lam, F. Y. F.; Hung, I. F. N.; Yuen, M. F.; Leung, W. K. (2017-01-23). "Randomised clinical trial: rifaximin versus placebo for the treatment of functional dyspepsia". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 45 (6): 767–776. doi: 10.1111/apt.13945 . ISSN   0269-2813. PMID   28112426. S2CID   207052951.
  28. ↑ Enck, Paul; Azpiroz, Fernando; Boeckxstaens, Guy; Elsenbruch, Sigrid; Feinle-Bisset, Christine; Holtmann, Gerald; Lackner, Jeffrey M.; Ronkainen, Jukka; Schemann, Michael; Stengel, Andreas; Tack, Jan (2017-11-03). "Functional dyspepsia". Nature Reviews. Disease Primers. 3: 17081. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.81. ISSN   2056-676X. PMID   29099093. S2CID   4929427.
  29. ↑ Milivojevic, Vladimir; Rankovic, Ivan; Krstic, Miodrag N.; Milosavljevic, Tomica (2021-06-14). "Dyspepsia-challenge in primary care gastroenterology". Digestive Diseases. 40 (3). S. Karger AG: 270–275. doi: 10.1159/000517668 . ISSN   0257-2753. PMID   34126614.
  30. 1 2 Ford, Alexander C.; Moayyedi, Paul; Black, Christopher J.; Yuan, Yuhong; Veettil, Sajesh K.; Mahadeva, Sanjiv; Kengkla, Kirati; Chaiyakunapruk, Nathorn; Lee, Yeong Yeh (2020-09-16). "Systematic review and network meta-analysis: efficacy of drugs for functional dyspepsia". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 53 (1): 8–21. doi:10.1111/apt.16072. ISSN   0269-2813. PMID   32936964. S2CID   221768794.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Duboc, Henri; Latrache, Sofya; Nebunu, Nicoleta; Coffin, Benoit (2020). "The Role of Diet in Functional Dyspepsia Management". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11: 23. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00023 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   7012988 . PMID   32116840.
  32. 1 2 Pinto-Sanchez, Maria Ines; Yuan, Yuhong; Hassan, Ahmed; Bercik, Premysl; Moayyedi, Paul (2017-11-21). "Proton pump inhibitors for functional dyspepsia". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (3): CD011194. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011194.pub3. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6485982 . PMID   29161458.
  33. ↑ Huang, Xinyi; Oshima, Tadayuki; Tomita, Toshihiko; Fukui, Hirokazu; Miwa, Hiroto (November 2021). "Meta-Analysis: Placebo Response and Its Determinants in Functional Dyspepsia". American Journal of Gastroenterology. 116 (11): 2184–2196. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000001397. ISSN   0002-9270. PMID   34404084. S2CID   237199057.
  34. ↑ Pittayanon, Rapat; Yuan, Yuhong; Bollegala, Natasha P; Khanna, Reena; Leontiadis, Grigorios I; Moayyedi, Paul (2018-10-18). Cochrane Upper GI and Pancreatic Diseases Group (ed.). "Prokinetics for functional dyspepsia". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (10): CD009431. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009431.pub3. PMC   6516965 . PMID   30335201.
  35. ↑ "Proton Pump Inhibitors: Use in Adults" (PDF). Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. 2015. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
  36. ↑ Heiran, Alireza; Bagheri Lankarani, Kamran; Bradley, Ryan; Simab, Alireza; Pasalar, Mehdi (2021-12-01). "Efficacy of herbal treatments for functional dyspepsia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials". Phytotherapy Research. 36 (2): 686–704. doi:10.1002/ptr.7333. ISSN   1099-1573. PMID   34851546. S2CID   244774488.
  37. ↑ Kanfer, Isadore; Patnala, Srinivas (2021-01-01), Henkel, Ralf; Agarwal, Ashok (eds.), "Chapter 7 - Regulations for the use of herbal remedies", Herbal Medicine in Andrology, Academic Press, pp. 189–206, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815565-3.00007-2, ISBN   978-0-12-815565-3, S2CID   234186151 , retrieved 2022-01-27
  38. ↑ Rodrigues, David M; Motomura, Douglas I; Tripp, Dean A; Beyak, Michael J (2021-06-16). "Are psychological interventions effective in treating functional dyspepsia? A systematic review and meta‐analysis". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 36 (8): 2047–2057. doi:10.1111/jgh.15566. ISSN   0815-9319. PMID   34105186. S2CID   235379735.
  39. ↑ Esterita, Tasia; Dewi, Sheilla; Suryatenggara, Felicia Grizelda; Glenardi, Glenardi (2021-06-18). "Association of Functional Dyspepsia with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review". Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases: JGLD. 30 (2): 259–266. doi: 10.15403/jgld-3325 . ISSN   1842-1121. PMID   33951117. S2CID   233868221.
  40. ↑ Esterita, Tasia; Dewi, Sheilla; Suryatenggara, Felicia Grizelda; Glenardi, Glenardi (2021-06-18). "Association of Functional Dyspepsia with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review". Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases. 30 (2): 259–266. doi: 10.15403/jgld-3325 . ISSN   1842-1121. PMID   33951117. S2CID   233868221.
  41. ↑ Tsukanov, V. V.; Vasyutin, A. V.; Tonkikh, Ju. L. (2020-10-22). "Modern aspects of the pathogenesis and treatment of dyspepsia". Meditsinskiy Sovet = Medical Council (15): 40–46. doi: 10.21518/2079-701x-2020-15-40-46 . ISSN   2658-5790. S2CID   226340276.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.