List of nuclear power systems in space

Last updated November 01, 2023

This list of nuclear power systems in space includes 81 nuclear power systems that were flown to space, or at least launched in an attempt to reach space. Such used nuclear power systems include:

radioisotope heater units (RHU) (usually produce heat by spontaneous decay of ²³⁸
Pu )
radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) (usually produce heat by spontaneous decay of ²³⁸
Pu and convert it to electricity using a thermoelectric generator)
miniaturized fission reactors (usually produce heat by controlled fission of highly enriched ²³⁵
U and convert it to electricity using a thermionic converter)

Systems never launched are not included here, see Nuclear power in space.

Initial total power is provided as either electrical power (We) or thermal power (Wt), depending on the intended application.

Nation	Mission	Launched	Fate / location	Technology	Nuclear fuel	Power (nominal)	Ref
USA	Transit-4A	1961	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-3B	²³⁸ Pu	2.7 We	^[1]
USA	Transit-4B	1961	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-3B	²³⁸ Pu	2.7 We	^[1]
USA	Transit 5BN-1	1963	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-9A	²³⁸ Pu	25.2 We	^[1]
USA	Transit 5BN-2	1963	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-9A	²³⁸ Pu	26.8 We	^[1]
USA	Transit 5BN-3	1964	Failed to reach orbit, burned up in atmosphere.	RTG SNAP-9A	²³⁸ Pu	25 We	^[2]
USA	SNAPSHOT	1965	Low graveyard orbit in 1300 km height	fission reactor SNAP-10A	²³⁵ U (uranium-zirconium hydride)	500 We	^[1]
USA	Nimbus B (Nimbus-B1)	1968-05-18	Crashed at launch, radioactive material from RTG recovered from ocean and reused	RTG SNAP-19B (2)	²³⁸ Pu	56 We	^[1]^[3]
USA	Nimbus 3 (Nimbus-B2)	1969-04-14	Earth re-entry 1972	RTG SNAP-19B (2)	²³⁸ Pu	56 We	^[1]
USA	Nimbus IV	1970	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-19			^[4]
USA	Nimbus V	1972	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-19			^[4]
USA	Nimbus VI	1975	Earth orbit, damaged	RTG SNAP-19			^[4]
USA	Nimbus VII	1978	Earth orbit, damaged	RTG SNAP-19			^[4]
USA	Apollo 11	1969		RHU (2)		30 Wt	^[1]
USA	Apollo 12 ALSEP	1969	Lunar surface (Ocean of Storms)^[5]	SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	73.6 We	^[1]
USA	Apollo 13 ALSEP	1970	Earth re-entry (Pacific Ocean, Tonga Trench)	RTG SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	73 We	^[1]
USA	Apollo 14 ALSEP	1971	Lunar surface (Fra Mauro)	RTG SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	72.5 We	^[1]
USA	Apollo 15 ALSEP	1971	Lunar surface (Hadley–Apennine)	RTG SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	74.7 We	^[1]
USA	Pioneer 10	1972	Ejected from Solar System	RTG SNAP-19 (4) + RHU (12)	²³⁸ Pu	162.8 We + 12 Wt	^[1]
USA	Apollo 16 ALSEP	1972	Lunar surface (Descartes Highlands)	RTG SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	70.9 We	^[1]
USA	TRAID-01-1X	1972	Earth orbit	RTG SNAP-19	²³⁸ Pu	35.6 We	^[1]
USA	Apollo 17 ALSEP	1972	Lunar surface (Taurus–Littrow)	RTG SNAP-27	²³⁸ Pu	75.4 We	^[1]
USA	Pioneer 11	1973	Ejected from Solar System	RTG SNAP-19 (4) + RHU (12)	²³⁸ Pu	159.6 We + 12 Wt	^[1]
USA	Viking 1	1976	Mars surface (Chryse Planitia)	lander modified RTG SNAP-19 (2)	²³⁸ Pu	84.6 We	^[1]
USA	Viking 2	1976	Mars surface (Utopia Planitia)	lander modified RTG SNAP-19 (2)	²³⁸ Pu	86.2 We	^[1]
USA	LES-8	1976	Near geostationary orbit	MHW-RTG (2)	²³⁸ Pu	307.4 We	^[1]
USA	LES-9	1976	Near geostationary orbit	MHW-RTG (2)	²³⁸ Pu	308.4 We	^[1]
USA	Voyager 1	1977	Ejected from Solar System	MHW-RTG (3) + RHU(9)	²³⁸ Pu	477.6 We + 9 Wt	^[1]
USA	Voyager 2	1977	Ejected from Solar System	MHW-RTG (3) + RHU(9)	²³⁸ Pu	470.1 We + 9 Wt	^[1]
USA	Mars 2020/Perseverance	2020	Mars surface	MMRTG	²³⁸ Pu	110 We	^[6]
USA	Galileo	1989	Jupiter atmospheric entry	GPHS-RTG (2)		576.8 We	^[1]
USA	Ulysses	1990	Heliocentric orbit	GPHS-RTG		283 We	^[1]
USA	Cassini	1997	Burned-up in Saturn's Atmosphere	GPHS-RTG (3)	²³⁸ Pu	887 We
USA	New Horizons	2006	Pluto and beyond	GPHS-RTG (1)	²³⁸ Pu	249.6 We
USA	MSL/Curiosity rover	2011	Mars surface	MMRTG	²³⁸ Pu	113 We
Soviet Union	Kosmos 84	1965	Earth orbit	Orion-1 RTG	²¹⁰ Po		^[4]^[7]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 90	1965	Earth orbit	Orion-1 RTG	²¹⁰ Po		^[4]^[7]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 198 (RORSAT)	1967-12-27	Earth orbit	Fission reactor BES-5 ??	²³⁵ U		^[4]^[8]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 209 (RORSAT)	1968-03-22	Earth orbit	Fission reactor BES-5 ??	²³⁵ U		^[4]^[8]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 305 (Moon)	1969-10-22	Failed to leave Earth orbit towards the Moon, burned up in atmosphere 2 days after launch	??	??	??	^[4]^[9]^[10]^[11]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 367 (RORSAT)	1970-10-03	Earth orbit, 579 mile altitude	Fission reactor BES-5 ??	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[4]^[8]^[12]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 402 (RORSAT)	1971	Earth orbit	Fission reactor BES-5 ??	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[4]^[8]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 469 (RORSAT)	1971	High orbit	Fission reactor BES-5 (officially confirmed)	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 516	1972	High orbited 1972	Fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	RORSAT	1973	Launch failure over Pacific Ocean, near Japan	Fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 626	1973	Earth orbit	Fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 651	1974		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 654	1974		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 723	1975		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 724	1975		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 785	1975	failed after reaching orbit	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 860	1976		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 861	1976		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 952	1977		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 954	1977	Exploded on re-entry 1978 (over Canada)	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1176	1980	11788/11971 Earth orbit 870–970 km	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1249	1981		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1266	1981		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1299	1981		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1402	1982	Earth re-entry 1983 (South Atlantic)	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1372	1982		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1365	1982		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1412	1982		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1461	1983	Earth orbit, exploded	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[4]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1597	1984		BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1607	1984	High orbited 1985	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1670	1985	High orbited 1985	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1677	1985	High orbited 1985	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1736	1986	High orbited 1986	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1771	1986	High orbited 1986	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1900	1987	Earth orbit, 454 mile altitude	BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]^[12]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1860	1987		Fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1932	1988	Earth orbit 800–900 km	fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1682	1985	High orbited 1986	fission reactor BES-5	²³⁵ U	2 kWe	^[13]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1818 (RORSAT)	1987	Destroyed in high Earth orbit	fission reactor Topaz-I	²³⁵ U	5 kWe	^[14]
Soviet Union	Kosmos 1867 (RORSAT)	1987	Parked in high Earth orbit	fission reactor Topaz-I	²³⁵ U	5 kWe	^[15]
Soviet Union	Lunokhod 201	1969-02-19	Rocket exploded at launch, radioactive material from RHU spread over Russia	RHU	²¹⁰ Po		^[16]
Soviet Union	Lunokhod 1	1970	Lunar surface	RHU	²¹⁰ Po		^[16]
Soviet Union	Lunokhod 2	1973	Lunar surface	RHU	²¹⁰ Po		^[16]
Russia	Mars 96	1996	Launch failure, entered Pacific Ocean	RHU (4)	²³⁸ Pu		^[16]
China	Chang'e 3 and Yutu	2013	Lunar surface	several RHU's, RTG (??) (some electricity provided by solar panels)	²³⁸ Pu		^[17] ^[18]
India	Chandrayaan-3	2023	Lunar orbit	RHU	²⁴¹Am	2 Wt	^[19]

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U with neutrons to produce ²³⁹
U, which then underwent beta decay to ²³⁹
Np.

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Americium-241 is an isotope of americium. Like all isotopes of americium, it is radioactive, with a half-life of 432.2 years. ²⁴¹
Am is the most common isotope of americium as well as the most prevalent isotope of americium in nuclear waste. It is commonly found in ionization type smoke detectors and is a potential fuel for long-lifetime radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). Its common parent nuclides are β⁻ from ²⁴¹
Pu, EC from ²⁴¹
Cm, and α from ²⁴⁵
Bk. ²⁴¹
Am is fissile and the critical mass of a bare sphere is 57.6–75.6 kilograms (127.0–166.7 lb) and a sphere diameter of 19–21 centimetres (7.5–8.3 in). Americium-241 has a specific activity of 3.43 Ci/g (126.91 GBq/g). It is commonly found in the form of americium-241 dioxide. This isotope also has one meta state, ^241m
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Pu contain a buildup of ²⁴¹
Am. A chemical removal of americium-241 from reworked plutonium may be required in some cases.

References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 "Atomic Power in Space II: A History 2015" (PDF). inl.gov. Idaho National Laboratory. September 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
↑ "Transit". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
↑ A. Angelo Jr. and D. Buden (1985). Space Nuclear Power. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89464-000-3.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hagen, Regina (November 8, 1998). "Nuclear Powered Space Missions - Past and Future". space4peace.org. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
↑ David M. Harland (2011). Apollo 12 - On the Ocean of Storms. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-4419-7607-9.
↑ mars.nasa.gov. "Electrical Power". mars.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2021-02-25.
1 2 Bennett, Gary L. (August 6, 1989). "A LOOK AT THE SOVIET SPACE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM" (PDF). International Forum on Energy Engineering. NASA Propulsion, Power and Energy Division. IECEC-89. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
1 2 3 4 Sven Grahn. "The US-A program (Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellites)". svengrahn.pp.se. Retrieved 2020-05-12.
↑ Encyclopedia Astronautica article on the US-A RORSAT programme.
↑ "USSR - Luna Programme".
↑ "NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details".
1 2 "Top 10 Space Age Radiation Incidents". 20 January 2012.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 "US-A". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 14 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-09-14. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
↑ "Old Russian Nuclear Satellite Returns". Spacedaily.com. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
↑ Lardier, Christian; Barensky, Stefan (March 27, 2018). The Proton Launcher: History and Developments. Wiley-ISTE. ISBN 978-1786301765.
1 2 3 4 Karacalıoğlu, Göktuğ (January 6, 2014). "Energy Resources for Space Missions". Space Safety Magazine. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
↑ SUN, ZeZhou; JIA, Yang; ZHANG, He (November 2013). "Technological advancements and promotion roles of Chang'e-3 lunar probe mission". Science China. 56 (11): 2702–2708. Bibcode:2013ScChE..56.2702S. doi:10.1007/s11431-013-5377-0. S2CID 111801601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
↑ "Chang'e-3 - Satellite Missions". earth.esa.int. ESA. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
↑ "Nuclear energy keeps Chandrayaan-3 propulsion module going". The Times of India. 2023-10-31. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 2023-10-31.

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[Atomic-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 "Atomic Power in Space II: A History 2015" (PDF). inl.gov. Idaho National Laboratory. September 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2018.

[Astronautica-2] "Transit". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.

[3] A. Angelo Jr. and D. Buden (1985). Space Nuclear Power. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89464-000-3.

[space4peace-4] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hagen, Regina (November 8, 1998). "Nuclear Powered Space Missions - Past and Future". space4peace.org. Retrieved 13 June 2018.

[storms-5] David M. Harland (2011). Apollo 12 - On the Ocean of Storms. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-4419-7607-9.

[6] rs.nasa.gov. "Electrical Power". mars.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2021-02-25.

[IECEC-89-7] 1 2 Bennett, Gary L. (August 6, 1989). "A LOOK AT THE SOVIET SPACE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM" (PDF). International Forum on Energy Engineering. NASA Propulsion, Power and Energy Division. IECEC-89. Retrieved 25 June 2018.

[svengrahn-8] 1 2 3 4 Sven Grahn. "The US-A program (Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellites)". svengrahn.pp.se. Retrieved 2020-05-12.

[9] Encyclopedia Astronautica article on the US-A RORSAT programme.

[10] "USSR - Luna Programme".

[11] "NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details".

[top_10-12] 1 2 "Top 10 Space Age Radiation Incidents". 20 January 2012.

[RORSAT-13] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 "US-A". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 14 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-09-14. Retrieved 13 June 2018.

[Kosmos_1818-14] "Old Russian Nuclear Satellite Returns". Spacedaily.com. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[proton-15] Lardier, Christian; Barensky, Stefan (March 27, 2018). The Proton Launcher: History and Developments. Wiley-ISTE. ISBN 978-1786301765.

[eneryspace-16] 1 2 3 4 Karacalıoğlu, Göktuğ (January 6, 2014). "Energy Resources for Space Missions". Space Safety Magazine. Retrieved January 18, 2014.

[Science_China_vol_56-17] SUN, ZeZhou; JIA, Yang; ZHANG, He (November 2013). "Technological advancements and promotion roles of Chang'e-3 lunar probe mission". Science China. 56 (11): 2702–2708. Bibcode:2013ScChE..56.2702S. doi:10.1007/s11431-013-5377-0. S2CID 111801601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2013.

[jade_rabbit-18] "Chang'e-3 - Satellite Missions". earth.esa.int. ESA. Retrieved 12 June 2018.

[19] "Nuclear energy keeps Chandrayaan-3 propulsion module going". The Times of India. 2023-10-31. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 2023-10-31.

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v t e Nuclear-powered Earth satellites
Nuclear power in space List of nuclear power systems in space
Examples	SNAP-10A Transit-4A Transit-4B Transit 5BN-1 Transit 5BN-2 Kosmos 198 Kosmos 209 Kosmos 367 Kosmos 402 Kosmos 469 Kosmos 516 Kosmos 626 Kosmos 651 Kosmos 654 Kosmos 723 Kosmos 724 Kosmos 785 Kosmos 860 Kosmos 861 Kosmos 954 Kosmos 1176 Kosmos 1249 Kosmos 1266 Kosmos 1299 Kosmos 1365 Kosmos 1372 Kosmos 1402 Kosmos 1607 Kosmos 1670 Kosmos 1677 Kosmos 1682 Kosmos 1736 Kosmos 1771 Kosmos 1818 Kosmos 1860 Kosmos 1867 Kosmos 1900 Kosmos 1932 LES-8 LES-9
Re-entered	Kosmos 954 Kosmos 1402 Nimbus-B Nimbus 3 Transit 5BN-3 1973 Launch failure
See also Category:Nuclear power in space

List of nuclear power systems in space

See also

Related Research Articles

References