Mochica (Yunga) is an extinct and revitalizing language isolate formerly spoken by the Moche and Sican cultures in the departments of Lambayeque and La Libertad, along the Peruvian North Coast, until the 1920s.[3] Documented in various colonial and 19th-century sources, Mochica is characterized by its unique consonant system, particularly its laterals, clitic- rather than affix-based morphosyntax, and etymologically transparent numeral classifiers.[4] In recent times, there have been initiatives to revitalize the language, such as teaching it in schools and creating modern learning resources for Mochica.[2][5]
Colonial sources record several designations for the language now generally known as Mochica: Yunga, Mochica, Muchic/Muchik, and occasional appellatives such as Pescadora. The choice of name varied according to author, period, and context.
The Franciscan friar Luis Jerónimo de Oré (missionary, polyglot, later bishop of Concepción in Chile) in his Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum (1607) refers to the "Mochica" language and also uses the phrase Mochica de los Yungas ('Mochica of the Yungas').[6] In the latter case, he seems to distinguish between the language itself – called Mochica – and the northern peoples – called Yungas. At the time Yunga was employed not only as a geographic and climatic term, derived from Quechuaexonymyunkacode: que promoted to code: qu ('warm area'), but also to refer to the Mochica as an ethnic group.[7]
In 1644, the diocesan priest and parish vicar of RequeFernando de la Carrera Daza[es] published the Arte de la lengua yunga[es] ('Art of the Yunga Language'), the only known colonial grammar of this language, where he consistently used the exonym Yunga.[8] His choice reflects the fact that Yunga was, in the colonial lexicon, the Spanish designation (borrowed from Quechuayunkacode: que promoted to code: qu ) for the coastal peoples, regions, and languages.[9]
The Augustinian friar Antonio de la Calancha employed the form Muchic in his Crónica moralizadora (1638).[10] In the 19th century, the German physician and philologist Ernst W. Middendorf[de] revived that variant and disseminated it as Muchik in works such as Das Muchik oder die Chimu-Sprache (1892).[11] Middendorf also identified the language with that of the Chimú, partly because Quingnam (the actual language of the Chimú kingdom)[12] was at that time unknown to scholars, whereas colonial references and traces of Mochica still existed. Furthermore, nineteenth-century archaeology often grouped Sicán and Moche material into stages labeled "proto-Chimú" or "early Chimú", which reinforced the misattribution. Later archaeological and linguistic research clarified these associations and dissociated Quingnam from Mochica.[7][9]
Today, Mochica remains the most widely used term in academic literature, while some revitalization projects prefer Muchik, taken from colonial and 19th-century sources.[7][13]
Documentation
The earliest published documentation of Mochica dates back to 1607 in Oré's Rituale, containing some Mochica sentences of unknown origin. However, a 1582 manuscript believed to be hosted at the Archiepiscopal Archive of Trujillo titled Gobierno de los situmas antes de los señores yngas comenzasen a reinar, y trata quienes fueron y mandaron en aqueste valle, Cañaribamba purported to contain information in Cañari, an extinct and poorly known language of Ecuador, has Mochica texts which were copied and published elsewhere but assumed to be of Cañari origin.[12] Following that, Carrera's Arte is one of the primary sources of data on Mochica, including a descriptive grammar, religious texts, and general information about the Lambayeque region.[4] A document known as the "plan" of Bishop of TrujilloBaltasar Jaime Martínez Compañón in his Codex Martínez Compañón, a general account of life in 18th-century Peru, contains a 43-word list in Mochica.[14] Towards the end of Mochica's existence as a native language in the 19th century, various scholars such as Adolf Bastian, Ernst Middendorf[de], Walter Lehmann, Federico Villarreal, and Hans Heinrich Brüning documented Mochica, most notably Middendorf,[11] who authored the other primary source on Mochica, a grammar incorporating some elements of Carrera's work, but also some new content.[15] Following the death of the last fluent speakers, two new sources of documentation were published, by Konrad Huber (1953), who collected data from 1943-47, also including an unpublished wordlist by Rafael Quesquén,[16] and Paul Kosok (1965),[17] whose wordlist contains a large amount of errors. Finally, the last rememberer of Mochica, Simón Quesquén (1918-1995), had recordings made of his speech in Mochica in 1974, the only ones known in existence.[1]
Mochica is classified as a language isolate by virtually all modern sources on the language.[19] An exception is Stark (1968, 1972), which groups Mochica (Yunga) with Uru–Chipaya and Mayan.[20][21] This hypothesis, however, has not been received well among the linguistic communtiy.[22]
Geographic distribution
According to the list of the vicar of Reque and author of the aforementioned Art, Fernando de la Carrera, the peoples who in 1644 spoke the Mochica language were as follows:
The Cultural Office of the district of Mórrope has launched a program to teach the Mochica language in an effort to preserve the region’s ancient cultural legacy. The initiative has been well received by local residents and adopted by numerous schools. Additional cultural activities, such as the crafting of ceramics and decorated gourds (mates), have also been introduced as part of the revitalization effort.[24]
Previously considered a dead language, Mochica is now taught in 38 schools and has around 80 teachers.[2]
Phonology and orthography
The phonology of Mochica is not known with certainty due to the differing transcriptions used by different authors. In addition, the two primary sources on Mochica were recorded over 200 years apart, with significant phonetic changes having occurred during that time.
Vowels
Carrera Daza (1644)
Carrera Daza distinguishes six vowels in Mochica, represented as ⟨a, e, i, o, u, æ⟩, with the latter sometimes being written as ⟨œ⟩ in different editions of his grammar. This vowel is characterized as "begin[ning] as an e and end[ing] as a u, in such a way that there are two vowels in one". A diacritic is used to indicate length, though it is mainly restricted to a few roots (ûtzh 'big') and the ending -ô, used in the genitive construction.
The letter ⟨i⟩ is sometimes used as a palatalization marker by Carrera Daza (e.g. ñaiñ/nʲanʲ/ 'bird' or çio/sʲo/ 'he, it'), and diphthongs did not occur in the Mochica of his time.[25]
Middendorf (1892)
In contrast, Middendorf recognizes 17 vowels, including 11 plain vowels, two "impure" vowels, and four diphthongs. The impure vowels are written as ⟨ů⟩ and ⟨ä⟩. Middendorf admits that he was never able to correctly pronounce them, but characterizes them similarly to the ⟨æ⟩ of Carrera Daza. ⟨ä⟩ is described with a very fleeting u sound, such that in rapid speech it would sound similar to [ɛ] or [e]. ⟨ů⟩ is described as reminiscent of the diphthong /aʊ/.[25][12]
The sixth vowel
The vowel represented by ⟨æ⟩ is hotly debated in the field of Mochica studies. As no sound recordings of Mochica exist, and because the existing descriptions are rather vague, the true phonetic value cannot be discerned and any interpretations remain completely hypothetical. One hypothesis is that the sixth vowel was /ɨ/,[26] commonly found in Amazonian languages. Other hypotheses have given realizations of [ɵ,ø,ʉ,ɘʊ,ɘ,œy̯] and [ǝ].[12]
Comparison
A comparison table of the vowels in Carrera Daza and Middendorf is given below.
Carrera Daza
a, â
e
i
o, ô
u, û
œ/æ
Middendorf
a, ā, ă
e (ē)
ī, (i), ĭ
ō, (o), ŏ
u, ū, ŭ
ä, ů
Table
Thus, a vowel system of Mochica would resemble the table below:
The orthography used for Spanish at the time of the writing of Carrera's grammar was very chaotic and inconsistent. One may therefore never be quite sure on the nature of consonants, especially sibilants, in Spanish colonial texts of the time.[12]
Sibilants
The symbols used to represent Mochica sibilants in Carrera (1644) are ⟨ç/z, s, x⟩ and ⟨ss⟩.
⟨x⟩
The grapheme ⟨x⟩ is described unanimously among Mochica scholars as representing /ʃ/.
⟨ç/z⟩
All but two authors coincide in their description of the phoneme represented by ⟨ç⟩ or ⟨z⟩. The only sources to disagree are Stark (1968), which interprets them both as different allophones of /ʃ/, being [ɕ] and [ʑ] respectively. Hovdhaugen (2004) interprets them as having a palatal pronunciation, which is represented as /sʲ/.
⟨s⟩ and ⟨ss⟩
Carrera (1644) explains the distinction between ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ss⟩ as "they ⟨ss⟩ have to be pronounced between them both, hurting on the last one as in ssonto, amoss."[12] The use of "hurting" is derived from Nebrija's Gramática de la lengua castellana, who described consonants and vowels using this definition: "they were called vowels because they have voice by themselves without mixing with other letters, the others were called consonants because they cannot sound without hurting the vowels". Thus, combining the two descriptions, it may be inferred that ⟨ss⟩ "sounded only when the second (last) ⟨s⟩ would affect the contiguous vowel", representing /s̺/ or /s/.
Digraphs and trigraphs
⟨cɥ⟩
The digraph ⟨cɥ⟩ is derived from a normal digraph ⟨ch⟩ but with the ⟨h⟩ inverted to represent the difference from normal ⟨ch⟩. Middendorf (1892) describes his corresponding sound as like the German ⟨tj⟩. Hovdhaugen (2004) interprets it as /ʈ͡ʂ/, Stark (1968) as /t̠ʲ/, Torero (1997, 2002) as /kʲ/, Eloranta (2013) and Michael et al. (2015) as /c/,[26] Cerrón-Palomino (1995) as /ʨ/ and Adelaar as /tʲ/.
⟨tzh⟩
The trigraph ⟨tzh⟩ is described as representing a sound difficult to pronounce by Carrera: "These [words] one pronounces starting with T, hurting on the Z and on the vowel, that comes after H, so that it does not say cha but tzha." He further describes the articulation of it as having the "tongue touch[ing] the palate next to the teeth". Middendorf describes it as similar to the German z/͡ts/.
⟨xll⟩
The trigraph ⟨xll⟩ is, according to Carrera, articulated as "[t]he X preceding consonant has to be pronounced hurting between both in a soft way, attaching the tongue to the palate, in such a manner that the sound of the first letter, the vowel, may come out through one side and the other of the mouth". Stark (1968) identifies this sound as /ɕʲ/, Torero (2002) as a voiceless post-palatal lateral fricative/𝼆̠/, Hovdhaugen (2004, 2005) as /ʂ/, Adelaar (2004) as /ɬʲ/, and Salas, Eloranta and Michael et al. (2015) as /ɬ/.
Other consonants
The following consonants are unanimously agreed upon by all sources:
voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, /k/; /ʈ/ is added by Hovdhaugen to represent the digraph ⟨tr⟩
voiced plosive /d/, also interpreted as /ð/ by Adelaar and Hovdhaugen, and /d̪/ by Stark
nasals /m/, /n/, /ɲ/, /ŋ/, though /ɲ/ is replaced by a pre-palatal nasal by Torero (2002)
the rhotic /r/, an alveolar trill; a tap /ɾ/ is also added by Stark and Cerrón-Palomino
Mochica is typologically different from the other main languages on the west coast of South America, namely Quechuan, Aymara, and Mapudungun. Further, it contains rare features such as:
a case system in which cases are built on each other in a linear sequence; for example, the ablative casesuffix is added to the locative case, which in turn is added to an oblique case form;
all nouns have two stems, possessed and non-possessed;
an agentive case suffix used mainly for the agent in passive clauses; and
a verbal system in which all finite forms are formed with the copula.
Morphology
Some suffixes in Mochica as reconstituted by Hovdhaugen (2004):[29]
sequential suffix: -top
purpose suffix: -næm
gerund suffixes: -læc and -ssæc
gerund suffix: -(æ)zcæf
gerund suffix: -(æ)d
Lexicon
Some examples of lexical items in Mochica from Hovdhaugen (2004):[29]
Nouns
Possessed and non-possessed nouns in Mochica:
gloss
non-possessed noun
possessed noun
'lord'
çiequic
çiec
'father'
efquic
ef
'son'
eizquic
eiz
'nostrils'
fænquic
fon
'eyes'
lucɥquic
locɥ
'soul'
moixquic
moix
'hand'
mæcɥquic
mæcɥ
'farm'
uizquic
uiz
'bread, food'
xllonquic
xllon
'head'
falpic
falpæng
'leg'
tonic
tonæng
'human flesh'
ærquic
ærqueng
'ear' (but med in medec 'in the ears')
medquic
medeng
'belly, heart' (pol and polæng appear to be equivalents)
Mochica is attested in a 43-word list in a document referred to as the "plan" collected by Martínez Compañón between 1782 and 1785. The "plan" is part of a larger work, known as the Codex Martínez Compañón, detailing life in colonial Peru.[27] Notably, the work also contains a number of watercolors, which were captioned by Martínez Compañón's personal secretary Pedro Agustín de Echevarri, who presumably also wrote down the "plan".
There are two copies of the "plan", one held in Bogotá and the other in Madrid. Both copies include 43-word lists for the Quechua, Mochica (Yunga), Sechura, Colán, Catacaos, Culli, Hibito and Cholón languages, as well as Spanish. The Colán and Catacaos languages are generally subsumed under the name Tallán, and they are closely related, probably dialects of a single language. The two versions of the "plan" have certain differences from each other, particularly in the spelling of the transcriptions.
A number of diacritics are employed in the vocabularies. Their meaning is not elaborated upon in the "plan", although certain diacritics are employed in only some of the languages, and are apparently not merely decorative in purpose.[14]
The following wordlist is of the Madrid version of the manuscript.
The only surviving song in the language is a single tonada, Tonada del Chimo, preserved in the Codex Martínez Compañón among many watercolours illustrating the life of Chimú people during the 18th century:
1st voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch Ja ya llũnch, ja ya lloch[sic] In poc cha tanmuisle pecan muisle pecan e necam
2nd voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch Ja ya llũnch
1st voice: E menspocehifama le qui ten que consmuiſle Cuerpo lens e menslocunmunom chi perdonar moitin Roc
2nd voice: Ja ya llõch Ja ya llũnh,[sic] ja ya llõch
1st voice: Chondocolo mec checje su chriſto po que si ta mali muis le cuer po[sic] lem. lo quees aoscho perdonar me ñe fe che tas
2nd voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch
↑Campbell, Lyle (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. The World of Linguistics. Vol.2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp.59–166. ISBN978-3-11-025513-3.
↑Stark, Louisa R. (1972). "Maya-Yunga-Chipayan: A New Linguistic Alignment". International Journal of American Linguistics. 38 (2): 119–135. doi:10.1086/465193. ISSN0020-7071. S2CID145380780.
12Adelaar, Willem F. H.; Muysken, Pieter (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge (G.B.): Cambridge University press. p.322. ISBN978-0-521-36275-7.
123Lev, Michael; Stark, Tammy; Chang, Will (2012). "Phonological inventory of Mochica". The South American Phonological Inventory Database (version 1.1.3ed.). Berkeley: University of California: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages Digital Resource.
12Martínez Compañón, Baltasar Jaime. 1985 [1782-1790]. Trujillo del Perú en el siglo XVIII, vol. 2. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica.
↑Eloranta, Rita. and Martin Kohlberger June 2013. Revisiting Mochica Phonology. The “Sixth Vowel”. Presened at the Fifth meeting of the ACLC Research group “Revitalising older linguistic documentation” (ROLD). University of Amsterdam.
123Hovdhaugen, Even (2004). Mochica. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
↑"Bajo y Tamboril para baylar cantando. [Índice:] Tonada del Chimo.". Trujillo del Perú . Volumen 2 (in Spanish). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. p.180. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
Brüning, Hans Heinrich (2004). Mochica Wörterbuch / Diccionario mochica: Mochica-castellano, castellano-mochica. Lima: Universidad San Martín de Porres.
Schumacher de Peña, G. (1992). El vocabulario mochica de Walter Lehmann (1929) comparado con otras fuentes léxicas. Lima: UNSM, Instituto de Investigación de Lingüística Aplicada.
† indicates an extinct language, italics indicates independent status of a language, bold indicates that a language family has at least 6 members, * indicates moribund status
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