Rooftop solar power

Last updated
Photovoltaikanlage.jpg
Berlin pv-system block-103 20050309 p1010367.jpg
Rooftop solar array at Kuppam i-community office (54928934).jpg
Rooftop PV systems around the world: Berlin, Germany (top-right), Bensheim, Germany (middle) and Kuppam, India (bottom-right)

A rooftop solar power system, or rooftop PV system, is a photovoltaic (PV) system that has its electricity-generating solar panels mounted on the rooftop of a residential or commercial building or structure. [1] The various components of such a system include photovoltaic modules, mounting systems, cables, solar inverters and other electrical accessories. [2]

Contents

Rooftop mounted systems are small compared to utility-scale solar ground-mounted photovoltaic power stations with capacities in the megawatt range, hence being a form of distributed generation. Most rooftop PV stations are Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems. Rooftop PV systems on residential buildings typically feature a capacity of about 5–20  kilowatts (kW), while those mounted on commercial buildings often reach 100 kilowatts to 1 megawatt (MW). Very large roofs can house industrial scale PV systems in the range of 1–10 MW.

As of 2022, around 25 million households rely on rooftop solar power worldwide. [3] Australia has by far the most rooftop solar capacity per capita. [4]

Installation

Workers install residential rooftop solar panels Children of the Sun Solar Initiative (48132850231).jpg
Workers install residential rooftop solar panels
Rooftop PV systems at Googleplex, California Googleplex solar power.jpg
Rooftop PV systems at Googleplex, California

The urban environment provides a large amount of empty rooftop spaces and can inherently avoid the potential land use and environmental concerns. Estimating rooftop solar insolation is a multi-faceted process, as insolation values in rooftops are impacted by the following:

There are various methods for calculating potential solar PV roof systems including the use of lidar [6] and orthophotos. [7] Sophisticated models can even determine shading losses over large areas for PV deployment at the municipal level. [8]

Components of a rooftop solar array:

The following section contains the most commonly utilized components of a rooftop solar array. Though designs may vary with roof type (e.g. metal vs shingle), roof angle, and shading concerns, most arrays consist of some variation of the following components

  1. Solar panels produce carbon free electricity when irradiated with sunlight. Often made of silicon, solar panels are made of smaller solar cells which typically have six cells per panel. Multiple solar panels strung together make up a solar array. Solar panels are generally protected by tempered glass and secured with an aluminum frame. [9] The front of a solar panel is very durable whereas the back of a panel is generally more vulnerable.
  2. Mounting clamps generally consist of aluminum brackets and stainless steel bolts that secure solar panels to one another on the roof and onto the rails. Clamps often vary in design in order to account for various roof and rail configurations. [10]
  3. Racking or rails are made of metal and often lie in a parallel configuration on the roof for the panels to lie on. It is important that the rails are level enough for the panels to be evenly mounted. [11]
  4. Mounts attach the rails and the entire array to the surface of the roof. These mounts are often L brackets that are bolted through flashing and into the rafters of the roof. Mounts vary in design due to the wide range of roof configurations and materials. [10]
  5. Flashings are a durable metal plate that provide a water resistant seal between the mounts and roof surface. Oftentimes, caulk is used to seal the flashing to the roof and it resembles a metal roof shingle.
  6. DC/AC wiring for inverters connect wires between panels and into a micro inverter or string inverter. [11] No cables should touch the roof surface or hang from the array to avoid weathering and the deterioration of cables.
  7. Micro inverters are mounted to the bottom of the panel and convert DC power from the panels into AC power that can be sent into the grid. Micro inverters allow for the optimization of each panel when shading occurs and can provide specific data from individual panels. [11]

Thin film solar on metal roofs

Thin film solar running down standing seam metal roof
Thin film solar on standing seam metal roof.jpg
Lakota MS PV array 1.jpg

With the increasing efficiencies of thin film solar, installing them on metal roofs has become cost competitive with traditional monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar cells. The thin film panels are flexible and run down the standing seam metal roofs and stick to the metal roof with adhesive, so no holes are needed to install. The connection wires run under the ridge cap at the top of the roof. Efficiency ranges from 10–18% but only costs about $2.00–$3.00 per watt of installed capacity, compared to monocrystalline which is 17–22% efficient and costs $3.00–$3.50 per watt of installed capacity. Thin film solar is light weight at 7–10 ounces per square foot. Thin film solar panels last 10–20 years [12] but have a quicker ROI than traditional solar panels, the metal roofs last 40–70 years before replacement compared to 12–20 years for an asphalt shingle roof. [13] [14]

Cost of Different Solar Roof Types
Type [15] Cost per watt Efficiency Average 6 kW system cost
Polycrystalline $2.80–$3.0013–17%$17,400
Monocrystalline $3.00–$3.5017–22%$19,000
Thin film panels $2.00–$3.0010–18%$17,000

Finances

Installation cost

PV system prices (2022)

[ needs update ]

Residential
CountryCost ($/W)
Australia 1.0
China 0.8
France 1.1
Germany 1.2
India 1.0
Italy 1.3
Japan 1.2
Pakistan 0.6
United Kingdom 1.2
United States 1.1
Commercial
CountryCost ($/W)
Australia 0.85
China 0.64
France 0.9
Germany 0.9
India 0.75
Italy 0.9
Japan 0.95
United Kingdom 1.0
United States 1.0

Incentives

United states

Solar incentives by state in the USA can help offset the initial cost of installation and make solar power more affordable. In the United States, each state has its own set of incentives and rebates for solar energy, including tax returns, tax credits and net metering for grid connected solar power systems. [16]

In the mid-2000s, solar companies used various financing plans for customers such as leases and power purchase agreements. Customers could pay for their solar panels over a span of years, and get help with payments from credits from net metering programs. As of May 2017, installation of a rooftop solar system costs an average of $20,000. In the past, it had been more expensive. [17]

Utility Dive wrote, "For most people, adding a solar system on top of other bills and priorities is a luxury" and "rooftop solar companies by and large cater to the wealthier portions of the American population." [17] Most households that get solar arrays are "upper middle-income". The average household salary for solar customers is around $100,000. [17] However, "a surprising number of low-income" customers appeared in a study of income and solar system purchases. "Based on the findings of the study, GTM researchers estimate that the four solar markets include more than 100,000 installations at low-income properties." [17]

A report released in June 2018 by the Consumer Energy Alliance that analyzed U.S. solar incentives showed that a combination of federal, state and local incentives, along with the declining net cost of installing PV systems, has caused a greater usage of rooftop solar across the nation. According to Daily Energy Insider, "In 2016, residential solar PV capacity grew 20 percent over the prior year, the report said. The average installed cost of residential solar, meanwhile, dropped 21 percent to $2.84 per watt-dc in the first quarter of 2017 versus first quarter 2015." [18] In fact, in eight states the group studied, the total government incentives for installing a rooftop solar PV system actually exceeded the cost of doing so. [19]

In 2019, the national average cost in the United States, after tax credits, for a 6 kW residential system was $2.99/W, with a typical range of $2.58 to $3.38. [20]

Due to economies of scale, industrial-sized ground-mounted solar systems produce power at half the cost (2 c/kWh) of small roof-mounted systems (4 c/kWh). [21]

Feed-in tariff mechanism

In a grid connected rooftop photovoltaic power station, the generated electricity can sometimes be sold to the servicing electric utility for use elsewhere in the grid. This arrangement provides payback for the investment of the installer. Many consumers from across the world are switching to this mechanism owing to the revenue yielded. A public utility commission usually sets the rate that the utility pays for this electricity, which could be at the retail rate or the lower wholesale rate, greatly affecting solar power payback and installation demand.

The FIT as it is commonly known has led to an expansion in the solar PV industry worldwide. Thousands of jobs have been created through this form of subsidy. However it can produce a bubble effect which can burst when the FIT is removed. It has also increased the ability for localised production and embedded generation reducing transmission losses through power lines. [2]

Solar shingles

Solar shingle Tesla Solar Roof-2.jpg
Solar shingle

Solar shingles or photovoltaic shingles, are solar panels designed to look like and function as conventional roofing materials, such as asphalt shingle or slate, while also producing electricity. Solar shingles are a type of solar energy solution known as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). [22]

Hybrid systems

Rooftop PV hybrid system. Onduleur hybride 2.JPG
Rooftop PV hybrid system.

A rooftop photovoltaic power station (either on-grid or off-grid) can be used in conjunction with other power components like diesel generators, wind turbines, batteries etc. These solar hybrid power systems may be capable of providing a continuous source of power. [2]

Advantages

Installers have the right to feed solar electricity into the public grid and hence receive a reasonable premium tariff per generated kWh reflecting the benefits of solar electricity to compensate for the current extra costs of PV electricity. [2]

Disadvantages

An electrical power system containing a 10% contribution from PV stations would require a 2.5% increase in load-frequency control (LFC) capacity over a conventional system[ jargon ]—an issue which may be countered by using synchronverters in the DC/AC-circuit of the PV system. The break-even cost for PV power generation was in 1996 found to be relatively high for contribution levels of less than 10%. While higher proportions of PV power generation give lower break-even costs, economic and LFC considerations impose an upper limit of about 10% on PV contributions to the overall power systems. [23]

Taking solar panels down to replace shingle roof

Rooftop solar on asphalt shingles Solar roof.jpg
Rooftop solar on asphalt shingles

When replacing the asphalt shingle roof the solar panels will need to be uninstalled and taken down to re-shingle the roof and reinstalled after the re-shingling of the roof. Power outages could happen at the house during that time. Solar panel installers would have to come out twice to do the uninstall and re-install at a later date when the roof is finished, and their labor is typically more expensive than asphalt shingle roofers pay rate. [24]

Technical Challenges

There are many technical challenges to integrating large amounts of rooftop PV systems to the power grid.

Reverse power flow

The electric power grid was not designed for two way power flow at the distribution level. Distribution feeders are usually designed as a radial system for one way power flow transmitted over long distances from large centralized generators to customer loads at the end of the distribution feeder. With localized and distributed solar PV generation on rooftops, reverse flow causes power to flow to the substation and transformer, causing significant challenges. This has adverse effects on protection coordination and voltage regulators.

Ramp rates

Rapid fluctuations of generation from PV systems due to intermittent clouds cause undesirable levels of voltage variability in the distribution feeder. At high penetration of rooftop PV, this voltage variability reduces the stability of the grid due to transient imbalance in load and generation and causes voltage and frequency to exceed set limits if not countered by power controls. That is, the centralized generators cannot ramp fast enough to match the variability of the PV systems causing frequency mismatch in the nearby system. This could lead to blackouts. This is an example of how a simple localized rooftop PV system can affect the larger power grid. The issue is partially mitigated by distributing solar panels over a wide area, and by adding storage.

Operation and maintenance

Rooftop PV solar operation and maintenance is of higher costs in comparison with ground-based facilities due to the distributed nature of rooftop facilities and harder access. In rooftop solar systems it typically takes a longer time to identify a malfunction and send a technician, due to lower availability of sufficient photovoltaic system performance monitoring tools and higher costs of human labor. As a result, rooftop solar PV systems typically suffer from lower quality of operation & maintenance and essentially lower levels of system availability and energy output.

Largest rooftop solar installations

Rooftop photovoltaic power stations (10 MW and larger)
PV power stationLocationCountryNominal Power [25]

(MWp)

Notes
Jining HuaxiShandongChina120Spanned across 43 rooftops with total capacity of 110 GWh/year [26]
LaiYih GroupVinh LongVietnam38Rooftop of footwear manufacturing facility [27] [28]
Prologis Redlands Distribution Center Redlands, California United States 28A series of installations on several rooftops at Prologis Redlands Distribution Center from November 2010 to August 2013 ranging from 1.75 MW to 6.77 MW [29]
Mai Dubai Bottling PlantDubaiUnited Arab Emirates1852,000 solar modules, completed Summer of 2019 [30]
AG Heylen EnergyVenloNetherlands18This project at Venlo consists of over 48,000 solar modules, and over 100 inverters. 126,000 square meter of roofs is used. [31] Installation completed in August 2020. [32]
Apple Park Cupertino, California United States17Approx 10 MW on main building and 7 MW on two parking structures [33]
Arvind LimitedSantejIndia16This is the largest solar rooftop plant in India at single industrial premises. This project at Santej consists of over 46,000 solar modules, and over 180 inverters. More than 20,000 man-days were spent in installing this landmark and over 40,000 square meter of old roofs were replaced to make way for this plant. [34]
Warehouse by Permacity / LADWPLos Angeles, CaliforniaUnited States16 [35]
General Motors Zaragoza Spain 12Installed at General Motors Spanish Zaragoza Manufacturing Plant in fall 2008 [36] [37]
Dera Baba Jaimal Singh, BeasIndia12Solar power plant spread over 42-acre rooftop [38]
Riverside Renewable Energy – Holt Logistics Gloucester Marine Terminal Gloucester City, New Jersey United States10Three refrigerated warehouse buildings. Completed April 2012 with 9 MW, [39] [40] expanded in 2019. [41]
Southern California Edison-Whirlpool Corporation Regional Distribution Center Perris, California United States10Installed on rooftop of Whirlpool Corporation Regional Distribution Center Sept. 19, 2011 [42]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photovoltaics</span> Method to produce electricity from solar radiation

Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as photosensors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar inverter</span> Converts output of a photovoltaic panel into a utility frequency alternating current

A solar inverter or photovoltaic (PV) inverter is a type of power inverter which converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a critical balance of system (BOS)–component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-powered equipment. Solar power inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar panel</span> Assembly of photovoltaic cells used to generate electricity

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels, solar electric panels, or PV modules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar tracker</span> Device that orients a payload towards the Sun

A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the Sun. Payloads are usually solar panels, parabolic troughs, Fresnel reflectors, lenses, or the mirrors of a heliostat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power by country</span>

Many countries and territories have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar shingle</span> Type of solar panel

Solar shingles, also called photovoltaic shingles, are solar panels designed to look like and function as conventional roofing materials, such as asphalt shingle or slate, while also producing electricity. Solar shingles are a type of solar energy solution known as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in Australia</span>

Solar power is a major contributor to electricity supply in Australia. As of December 2023, Australia's over 3.69 million solar PV installations had a combined capacity of 34.2 GW photovoltaic (PV) solar power. In 2019, 59 solar PV projects with a combined capacity of 2,881 MW were either under construction, constructed or due to start construction having reached financial closure. Solar accounted for 12.4% of Australia's total electrical energy production in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building-integrated photovoltaics</span> Photovoltaic materials used to replace conventional building materials

Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or façades. They are increasingly being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with similar technology. The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems is that the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials and labor that would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the BIPV modules replace. In addition, BIPV allows for more widespread solar adoption when the building's aesthetics matter and traditional rack-mounted solar panels would disrupt the intended look of the building.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in India</span>

India's solar power installed capacity was 81.813 GWAC as of 31 March 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in Germany</span>

Solar power accounted for an estimated 10.7% electricity in Germany in 2022, up from 1.9% in 2010 and less than 0.1% in 2000.

Financial incentives for photovoltaics are incentives offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems, also known as photovoltaics (PV).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power</span> Conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity

Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into an electric current. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in the United States</span>

Solar power includes solar farms as well as local distributed generation, mostly on rooftops and increasingly from community solar arrays. In 2023, utility-scale solar power generated 164.5 terawatt-hours (TWh), or 3.9% of electricity in the United States. Total solar generation that year, including estimated small-scale photovoltaic generation, was 238 TWh.

A photovoltaic system, also called a PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. Many utility-scale PV systems use tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in California</span>

Solar power has been growing rapidly in the U.S. state of California because of high insolation, community support, declining solar costs, and a renewable portfolio standard which requires that 60% of California's electricity come from renewable resources by 2030, with 100% by 2045. Much of this is expected to come from solar power via photovoltaic facilities or concentrated solar power facilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in Hawaii</span> Overview of solar power in the U.S. state of Hawaii

The energy sector in Hawaii has rapidly adopted solar power due to the high costs of electricity, and good solar resources, and has one of the highest per capita rates of solar power in the United States. Hawaii's imported energy costs, mostly for imported petroleum and coal, are three to four times higher than the mainland, so Hawaii has motivation to become one of the highest users of solar energy. Hawaii was the first state in the United States to reach grid parity for photovoltaics. Its tropical location provides abundant ambient energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photovoltaic mounting system</span>

Photovoltaic mounting systems are used to fix solar panels on surfaces like roofs, building facades, or the ground. These mounting systems generally enable retrofitting of solar panels on roofs or as part of the structure of the building. As the relative costs of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules has dropped, the costs of the racks have become more important and for small PV systems can be the most expensive material cost. This has caused an interest in small users deploying a DIY approach. Due to these trends, there has been an explosion of new racking trends. These include non-optimal orientations and tilt angles, new types of roof-mounts, ground mounts, canopies, building integrated, shading, vertical mounted and fencing systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photovoltaic power station</span> Large-scale photovoltaic system

A photovoltaic power station, also known as a solar park, solar farm, or solar power plant, is a large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic power system designed for the supply of merchant power. They are different from most building-mounted and other decentralized solar power because they supply power at the utility level, rather than to a local user or users. Utility-scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of project.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar power in South Africa</span> Overview of the use of solar power in South Africa

Solar power in South Africa includes photovoltaics (PV) as well as concentrated solar power (CSP). As of 2023, South Africa had over 2700 MW of installed PV solar power capacity in its grid, in addition to 500 MW of CSP. Installed capacity is expected to reach 8,400 MW by 2030.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to solar energy:

References

  1. ↑ Armstrong, Robert (12 November 2014). "The Case for Solar Energy Parking Lots". Absolute Steel. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Photovoltaic power generation in the buildings. Building integrated photovoltaic–BIPV" (PDF). bef-de.org. Retrieved 2011-06-20.
  3. ↑ "Approximately 100 million households rely on rooftop solar PV by 2030". International Energy Agency . 2022. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
  4. ↑ Chandak, Pooja (2022-03-21). "Global Rooftop Solar Installations To Almost Double By 2025, Says Report". SolarQuarter. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  5. ↑ "Energy Resources and Resource Criteria". greenip.org. Archived from the original on 2013-08-28. Retrieved 2011-06-20.
  6. ↑ Ha T. Nguyen, Joshua M. Pearce, Rob Harrap, and Gerald Barber, "The Application of LiDAR to Assessment of Rooftop Solar Photovoltaic Deployment Potential on a Municipal District Unit", Sensors, 12, pp. 4534-4558 (2012).
  7. ↑ L.K. Wiginton, H. T. Nguyen, J.M. Pearce, "Quantifying Solar Photovoltaic Potential on a Large Scale for Renewable Energy Regional Policy", Computers, Environment and Urban Systems34, (2010) pp. 345-357. Open access
  8. ↑ Nguyen, Ha T.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2012). "Incorporating shading losses in solar photovoltaic potential assessment at the municipal scale". Solar Energy. 86 (5): 1245–1260. Bibcode:2012SoEn...86.1245N. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2012.01.017. S2CID   15435496.
  9. ↑ "Module Structure | PVEducation". www.pveducation.org. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  10. 1 2 "Solar Panel Racking for Roof and Ground Mount Solar". unboundsolar.com. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  11. 1 2 3 "Anatomy Of A Rooftop Solar Mounting System". Solar Power World. 2014-03-19. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  12. ↑ "Thin-Film Solar Panels | American Solar Energy Society".
  13. ↑ "Pros and Cons of Metal Roofs for Your Home".
  14. ↑ "Solar Panels vs. Thin-Film Laminates: Costs, Pros & Cons, Top Brands". 19 January 2022.
  15. ↑ "Solar Panels vs. Thin-Film Laminates: Costs, Pros & Cons, Top Brands". 19 January 2022.
  16. ↑ "Compact guide to solar incentives by state in the USA". 2023-02-07.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Shallenberger, Krysti (2017-04-27). "Is rooftop solar just a toy for the wealthy?". Utility Dive. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
  18. ↑ Galford, Chris (2018-06-14). "Government incentives for rooftop solar often greater than system's total cost, CEA report finds". Daily Energy Insider. Retrieved 2018-07-04.
  19. ↑ kimi, imad. "Exploring the 5 Benefits of Solar Energy in Schools Rooftop". Voltagea. Dr. imad. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
  20. ↑ "How much do solar panels cost in the U.S. in 2018?". energysage. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
  21. ↑ Fox-Penner, Boston University, Peter (19 May 2020). Power after carbon : building a clean, resilient grid. Harvard University Press. pp. 52–53. ISBN   9780674241077.
  22. ↑ "Should You Buy Solar Shingles? (2023 Guide)".
  23. ↑ Asano, H.; Yajima, K.; Kaya, Y. (Mar 1996). "Influence of photovoltaic power generation on required capacity for load frequency control". IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 11 (1): 188–193. Bibcode:1996ITEnC..11..188A. doi:10.1109/60.486595. ISSN   0885-8969.
  24. ↑ "4 Things You Need to Know when Reroofing Your Home with Solar Panels".
  25. ↑ Note that nominal power may be AC or DC, depending on the plant. See AC-DC conundrum: Latest PV power-plant ratings follies put focus on reporting inconsistency (update) Archived 2011-01-19 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ↑ "Sungrow Supplies Inverters to 120 MW C&I Rooftop PV Plant". www.saurenergy.com. 22 July 2021.
  27. ↑ "Taiwanese footwear producer ties up Vietnamese company for renewable energy solutions". Viet Nam News. 26 January 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  28. ↑ "LAIYIH GROUP". indefol. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  29. ↑ "SEIA Solar Means Business: 2016 Edition Full Data". seia.org. Solar Energy Industries Association. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  30. ↑ "Mai Dubai solar installations produce more than 30 million kWh of power in 2020". Utilities Middle East. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  31. ↑ "Most Powerful Solarroof". Heylen Energy. Retrieved 2020-04-17.
  32. ↑ "Installation Completed of the World's Most Powerful Solar Roof Currently Operating at PVH Europe's State-of-the-Art Warehouse and Logistics Center". 6 October 2020.
  33. ↑ "New Apple Headquarters Sets Records in Solar and Green Building". www.renewableenergyworld.com. 2017-03-03. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
  34. ↑ "Arvind unveils India's largest rooftop solar project at 16.2 MW". Construction Week India. 13 February 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
  35. ↑ 50-acre solar rooftop installation up and running in San Pedro, Curbed, Los Angeles, June 26, 2017
  36. ↑ Uni-Solar Corporate Overview Brochure
  37. ↑ GM installs world's biggest rooftop solar panels
  38. ↑ ‘World’s largest’ single rooftop solar plant opened at Beas dera, Hindustan Times, May 18, 2016
  39. ↑ Largest Rooftop Solar Power Plant in North America Formally Completed
  40. ↑ Riverside Renewable Energy LLC
  41. ↑ "Holt Logistics Adds Additional Capacity to Groundbreaking 2011 Solar Installation at NJ's Gloucester Marine Terminal". Independence Solar. 2019-07-16. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  42. ↑ City of Perris solar panels
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.