Transvestism

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Transvestism was a medicalized framework primarily used in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to classify and explain varied forms of gender-variant expression and behavior. Coined by Magnus Hirschfeld in 1910, the term included a diverse range of phenomena that later came to be understood separately as cross-dressing, aspects of homosexuality, eonism, transsexuality, and transgender identity, but it was not limited to any single one of these concepts.

Contents

During the mid-twentieth century, transvestism was classified as a psychiatric disorder in diagnostic manuals. As medical and social understandings of gender variance and gender identity evolved, the term became increasingly outdated, stigmatized, and was largely replaced by other terms. In its place, several more specific terms emerged, including the neutral, non-medicalized term cross-dressing for clothing choice behavior, alongside clinical terms such as transvestic fetishism which were retained for narrowly defined psychiatric diagnoses.

Etymology and usage

Coinage

Magnus Hirschfeld coined the word transvestite (from Latin trans-, "across, over" and vestitus, "dressed") in his 1910 book Die Transvestiten (Transvestites) to refer to the sexual interest in cross-dressing. [1] He used it to describe persons who habitually and voluntarily wore clothes of the opposite sex. Hirschfeld's group of transvestites consisted of both males and females, with heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual orientations. [2]

Usage

The term transvestite was historically used to diagnose medical disorders, including mental health disorders, and transvestism was viewed as a disorder, while the term cross-dresser was coined by the trans community. [3] [4]

In some cases, the term transvestite is seen as more appropriate for use by members of the trans community instead of by those outside the trans community, and some have reclaimed the word. [5]

The use of the term travesti meaning cross-dresser was already common in French in the early 19th century, [6] from where it was imported into Portuguese, with the same meaning. [7]

Pejoration

Today,[ timeframe? ] the term transvestite is commonly considered outdated and derogatory, with the term cross-dresser used as a more appropriate replacement. [3] [8] [9] [10]

Meanings and definitions

The second half of the 20th century saw a multiplicity of terms and meanings applied to tranvestism as well as the coinage of related terms, many of which did not survive, or whose meanings evolved. In the most general sense, the wearing of clothing primarily associated with another sex is known as "cross-dressing", whereas transvestism is or was generally the term that describes obtaining of erotic arousal from cross-dressing. [11]

Moser gives this definition in 2002:

The act of wearing the stereotypic articles of clothing of the other sex is known as crossdressing. Obtaining erotic enjoyment from the process of cross-dressing is known as transvestism.

— Charles Allen Moser, "Transvestic fetishism: Psychopathology or iatrogenic artifact?" [11]

History

Precursors

The phenomenon of wearing clothing typical of the other sex was referred to in the Hebrew Bible. [12] [13]

Karl Heinrich Ulrichs Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (from Kennedy).jpg
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs

Karl Heinrich Ulrichs was a German lawyer and pioneer of sexology and gay rights. [14] In 1862, he came out to friends and family that he was gay, coining the German term Urning to describe himself (English: Uranian). [18] Ulrichs coined various terms to describe different sexual orientations, including Urning for a man who desires men (English "Uranian"), and Dioning for one who desires women. Ulrichs published urning pamphlets under his own name as an apologist for the cause, and is thus unique at that time and for some time thereafter. In 1868, the Austrian writer Karl-Maria Kertbeny coined the word homosexual in a letter to Ulrichs, and from the 1870s the subject of sexual orientation (in modern terms) began to be widely discussed.

Karl Westphal quoted Ulrichs's writings in the first psychiatric paper on 'contrary sexual feeling' and largely used Ulrichs's theoretical framework. Ulrichs also corresponded for many years with psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing, who later acknowledged his debt to Ulrichs, stating that it was "only the knowledge of your books which motivated me to study this highly important area". [19] [20]

Richard von Krafft-Ebing Richard von Krafft-Ebing. Photogravure. Wellcome V0026655.jpg
Richard von Krafft-Ebing

Richard von Krafft-Ebing was a German psychiatrist and author of the foundational work Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). Krafft-Ebing had particular significance for the scientific study of homosexuality. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs' theory of the "Urning" (Uranian) as a third sex [21] greatly influenced Krafft-Ebing's thinking on the subject.[ citation needed ] Being part of the homosexual movement of Weimar Germany in the beginning, a first transvestite movement of its own started to form since the mid-1920s, resulting in founding first organizations and the first transvestite magazine, Das 3. Geschlecht ('The Third Sex'). The rise of National Socialism stopped this movement from 1933 onwards. [22]

Magnus Hirschfeld

Magnus Hirschfeld in 1928 Magnus Hirschfeld (1928).jpg
Magnus Hirschfeld in 1928

Hirschfeld believed that clothing was only an outward symbol chosen on the basis of various internal psychological situations. [1] In fact, Hirschfeld helped people to achieve changes of their first name (legal given names were required to be gender-specific in Germany) and performed the first reported sexual reassignment surgery. Hirschfeld's transvestites therefore were, in today's terms, not only transvestites, but a variety of people from the transgender spectrum. [1]

Hirschfeld also noticed that sexual arousal was often associated with transvestism. [1] In more recent terminology, this is sometimes called transvestic fetishism. [23] Hirschfeld also clearly distinguished between transvestism as an expression of a person's "contra-sexual" (transgender) feelings and fetishistic behavior, even if the latter involved wearing clothes of the other sex. [1]

Ellis and Eonism

Ellis in 1913 Havelock Ellis cph.3b08675.jpg
Ellis in 1913

Havelock Ellis studied what today[ timeframe? ] are called transgender phenomena.[ citation needed ] Together with Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis is considered a major figure in the history of sexology to establish a new category that was separate and distinct from homosexuality. [24] Aware of Hirschfeld's studies of transvestism but disagreeing with his terminology, in 1913 Ellis proposed the term sexo-aesthetic inversion to describe the phenomenon. In 1920 he coined the term eonism, which he derived from the name of a historical figure, the Chevalier d'Éon. [25] [26]

Writing to sexologist Norman Haire in 1925 while writing his book on Eonism [a] , Ellis wrote: [26]

Just now I am getting my study on transvestism into shape. (I call it Eonism, after Chevalier d'Eon, as I do not agree that cross-dressing is aways the most essential feature.)

— Havelock Ellis, letter to Haire, 5 March 1925, quoted in Crozier (2000) [27]

Mid-20th century psychiatry

Mid-20th century psychiatry saw the introduction of key terms in sexology like transexualism , gender role , and gender identity .

David Oliver Cauldwell introduced the term transexualism to an English-speaking audience in 1949. [28] [29]

John Money coined gender role in 1955, [30] and Robert J. Stoller introduced gender identity in 1964. [31] During this period, the term transvestism was generally used in medical contexts to describe a disorder and not merely a behavior, [32] and was considered deviant behavior found predominantly among homosexuals. [32] : 1448 

Virginia Prince

Virginia Prince Portrait of Virginia Prince.jpg
Virginia Prince

Virginia Prince [33] was an American transgender woman and transgender activist. She published Transvestia magazine from 1960 to 1980, and founded Tri-Ess for male heterosexual cross-dressers.

Prince has been considered a major pioneer of the transgender community. [34] Her long history of literature surrounding issues of crossdressing and transvestism was rooted in her desire to fight against those who disagreed with liberal sexual ideology. [34] [35] [36]

By the early 1970s, Prince and her approaches to crossdressing and transvestism were starting to gain criticism from transvestites and transsexuals, as well as sections of the gay and women's movements of the time. Controversy and criticism has arisen based on Prince's support for conventional societal norms, such as marriage and the traditional family model, as well as the portrayal of traditional gender stereotypes. Her attempts to exclude transsexuals, homosexuals, or fetishists from her normalization efforts of the practice of transvestism have also drawn much criticism. [37]

In other works, Prince also helped popularize the term 'transgender', and erroneously[ citation needed ] asserted that she coined "transgenderist" and "transgenderism", words which she meant to be understood as describing people who live as full-time women, but have no intention of having genital surgery. [38] Prince also consistently argued that transvestism is very firmly related to gender, as opposed to sex or sexuality. [38] Her use of the term "femmiphile" related to the belief that the term "transvestite" had been corrupted, intending to underline the distinction between heterosexual crossdressers, who act because of their love of the feminine, and the homosexuals or transsexuals who may cross-dress. [39] [40] [41] Although Prince identified with the concept of androgyny (stating in her autobiographical 100th issue that she could "do [her] own thing whichever it is"), she preferred to identify as Gynandrous. This, she explained, is because although 'Charles' still resides within her, "the feminine is more important than the masculine." [42] Prince's idea of a "true transvestite" [43] was clearly distinguished from both the homosexual and the transsexual, claiming that true transvestites are "exclusively heterosexual... The transvestite values his male organs, enjoys using them and does not desire them removed." [43]

Harry Benjamin

Harry Benjamin was a German-American endocrinologist and sexologist, widely known for his clinical work with transgender people. [44]

Prior to arriving in the United States in 1914, Benjamin studied at Hirschfeld's Institut für Sexualwissenschaft in Berlin. From about this time onward he began to encounter and treat patients who he would later describe as transsexuals. [45] [46] In the 1930s he studied in Austria with Eugen Steinach. [45] In 1948, in San Francisco, [47] Benjamin was asked by Alfred Kinsey, a fellow sexologist, to see a young patient who was anatomically male but insisted on being female. [48] Kinsey had encountered the child as a result of his interviews for Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, which was published that year. [47] This case rapidly caused Benjamin's interest in what he would come to call transsexualism [48] realizing that there was a different condition to that of transvestism, under which adults who had such needs had been classified to that time.[ citation needed ][ clarification needed ]

As a disorder

The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) listed dual-role transvestism (non-sexual cross-dressing) and fetishistic transvestism (cross-dressing for sexual pleasure) as disorders in ICD-10 (1994). [49] [50] Both items were removed for ICD-11 (2022). [51]

When cross-dressing occurs for erotic purposes over a period of at least six months and also causes significant distress or impairment, the behavior is considered a mental disorder in the United States Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , and the psychiatric diagnosis "transvestic fetishism" is applied. [52]

Transvestite pass

A 1928 transvestite pass allowing Gert Katter, a female-to-male transvestite who was one of Hirschfeld's patients, to wear male clothing. Faksimile-Transvestitenschein.png
A 1928 transvestite pass allowing Gert Katter, a female-to-male transvestite who was one of Hirschfeld's patients, to wear male clothing.

In early 20th-century Germany, cross-dressing was not illegal per se, but there were risks with legal consequences, such as arrest for public outrage and disturbances. Magnus Hirschfeld played a pivotal role in assisting individuals mitigate the risks by helping them obtain a transvestite pass (Transvestitenschein) from the police regarding their clothing choices. Hirschfeld's efforts contributed to the transformation and legitimization of this pass into a state-recognized permit, particularly during the Weimar Republic. [54]

As gender-affirming surgery was only an emerging practice at the time, obtaining a transvestite pass along with an official name change represented the maximum extent to which many trans individuals could transition. [55]

See also

References

Notes
  1. ↑ Eonism and Other Supplementary Studies, 1928
Citations
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Hirschfeld, Magnus: Die Transvestiten. Berlin 1910: Alfred Pulvermacher
    Hirschfeld, Magnus. (1910/1991). Transvestites: The erotic drive to cross dress. (M. A. Lombardi-Nash, Trans.) Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
  2. ↑ Hirschfeld, Magnus. Geschlechtsverirrungen, 10th Ed. 1992, page 142 ff.
  3. 1 2 Vaccaro, Annemarie; August, Gerri; Kennedy, Megan S.; Newman, Barbara M. (2011). Safe Spaces: Making Schools and Communities Welcoming to LGBT Youth. ABC-CLIO. p. 142. ISBN   978-0-313-39368-6 . Retrieved October 21, 2016. Cross-dresser/cross-dressing. (1) The most neutral word to describe a person who dresses, at least partially or part of the time, and for any number of reasons, in clothing associated with another gender within a particular society. Carries no implications of 'usual' gender appearance, or sexual orientation. Has replaced transvestite, which is outdated, problematic, and generally offensive since it was historically used to diagnose medical/mental health disorders.
  4. ↑ David A. Gerstner (2006). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Queer Culture. Routledge. p. 568. ISBN   0313393680 . Retrieved October 21, 2016. A variety of derogatory terms are still used to describe any aspect of the transgender condition. [...] The term transvestite being older [than cross-dresser] and associated with the medical community's negative view of the practice, has come to be seen as a derogatory term. [...] The term cross-dresser, in contrast, having come from the transgender community itself, is a term seen as not possessing these negative connotations.
  5. ↑ Richards, Christina; Barker, Meg (2013). Sexuality and Gender for Mental Health Professionals: A Practical Guide. SAGE Publications. p. 162. ISBN   978-1-44628716-3 . Retrieved October 21, 2016. The term transvestite should not be considered to be a safe term, and should certainly not be used as a noun, as in 'a transvestite'. Instead, and only when relevant, the term trans person should be used. [...] There are some people who have reclaimed the word transvestite and may also use the word tranny or TV to refer to themselves and others. [...] The term cross-dressing too is somewhat outdated and problematic as not only do many fashions allow any gender to wear them -- at least in many contemporary Western societies -- but it also suggests a strict dichotomy being reinforced by the person who uses it.
  6. ↑ Bescherelle (M , Louis Nicolas) (1843), Dictionnaire usuel de tous les verbes français: tant réguliers qu'irréguliers, entièrement conjugués, contenant par ordre alphabétique les 7,000 verbes de la langue française avec leur conjugaison complète, et la solution analytique et raisonnée de toutes les difficultés auxquelles ils peuvent donner lieu (in French), Wikidata   Q125754132 , Volume II, p. 896
  7. ↑ Porto Editora – travesti no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa [em linha]. Porto: Porto Editora. Accessed on 2024-05-02 20:58:24.
  8. ↑ Capuzza, Jamie C.; Spencer, Leland G., eds. (2015). Transgender Communication Studies: Histories, Trends, and Trajectories. Lexington Books. p. 174. ISBN   978-1-4985-0006-7 . Retrieved October 21, 2016. Eventually, the transvestite label fell out of favor because it was deemed to be derogatory; cross-dresser has emerged as a more suitable replacement (GLAAD, 2014b).
  9. ↑ Zastrow, Charles (2016). Empowerment Series: Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People. Cengage Learning. p. 239. ISBN   978-1-305-38833-8 . Retrieved October 21, 2016. The term transvestite is often considered an offensive term.
  10. ↑ Kattari, Shanna K.; Kinney, M. Killian; Kattari, Leonardo; Walls, N. Eugene, eds. (2021). "Glossary". Social Work and Health Care Practice With Transgender and Nonbinary Individuals and Communities: Voices for Equity, Inclusion, and Resilience (1st ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. xxxviii. ISBN   978-1138336223. Transvestite: Outdated term previously used to describe a cross-dresser. Now considered pejorative.
  11. 1 2 Moser, Charles; Kleinplatz, Peggy J. (2002). "Transvestic fetishism: Psychopathology or iatrogenic artifact?" (PDF). New Jersey Psychologist. 52 (2): 16–17.
  12. ↑ Aggrawal, Anil. (April 2009). "References to the paraphilias and sexual crimes in the Bible". J Forensic Leg Med. 16 (3): 112, 114. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2008.07.006. PMID   19239958. Transvestism was prohibited in the Bible. Deuteronomy, the Fifth Book of Moses
  13. ↑ Aggrawal (2009) p. 112.
  14. ↑ Hans-Martin Lohmann: Geschichte der Sexualität – Vom Widerspruch her gedacht (Buchbesprechung: Volkmar Sigusch, Geschichte der Sexualwissenschaft, Campus, 2008), Frankfurter Rundschau Online.
  15. ↑ Endres, Nikolai (2004). "Kertbeny, Károly Mária (1824-1882)" (PDF). glbtq Encyclopedia . Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  16. ↑ "Karl-Maria Kertbeny: The Coinage and Dissemination of the Term", glbtq.com , archived from the original on 27 September 2012, retrieved 12 June 2012
  17. ↑ Feray Jean-Claude; Herzer Manfred (1990). "Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny". Journal of Homosexuality. 19 (1): 23–47. doi:10.1300/j082v19n01_02. PMID   2187922.
  18. ↑ The first known appearance of homosexual in print is found in an 1868 letter to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs by the Austrian-born novelist Karl-Maria Kertbeny [15] [16] arguing against a Prussian anti-sodomy law. [17]
  19. ↑ Pretsell, Douglas (2023). Queer Voices in the Works of Richard von Krafft-Ebing, 1883-1901. Genders and Sexualities in History. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-17331-8. ISBN   978-3-030-39762-3. S2CID   255715774. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  20. ↑ Pretsell, Douglas Ogilvy (2020). The Correspondence of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, 1846-1894. Genders and Sexualities in History. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39763-0. ISBN   978-3-030-39762-3. S2CID   219491782.
  21. ↑ Matzner, Sebastian (October 2015). Ancient Rome and the Construction of Modern Homosexual Identities. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780191814044.
  22. ↑ Rainer Herrn: Die Zeitschrift Das 3. Geschlecht in: Rainer Herrn (ed.): Das 3. Geschlecht – Reprint der 1930 – 1932 erschienenen Zeitschrift für Transvestiten, 2016, ISBN 9783863002176, p. 231 ff.
  23. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (Fifth ed.). Arlington, Virginia: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp.  685–705. ISBN   978-0-89042-555-8. OCLC   847226928.
  24. ↑ Ekins, Richard; King, Dave (2006). The Transgender Phenomenon. SAGE Publications. pp. 61–64. ISBN   978-0761971634.
  25. ↑ Ellis, Albert (2008) [1933]. Psychology of Sex. Read Books. ISBN   978-1443735322.
  26. 1 2 3 Crozier, Ivan (1 June 2000). "Havelock Ellis, Eonism and the patient's discourse; or, writing a book about sex". History of Psychiatry. 11 (42). Sage Publications: 131–132. doi:10.1177/0957154X0001104201. ISSN   0957-154X. p. 131–2: Just now I am getting my study on transvestism into shape. (I call it Eonism, after Chevalier d'Eon, as I do not agree that cross-dressing is aways the most essential feature.)
  27. ↑ quoted in Havelock Ellis, Eonism and the patient's discourse (2000) [26]
  28. ↑ Cauldwell, David Oliver (1949). "Psychopathia Transexualis". Sexology: Sex Science Magazine. 16. Archived from the original on 2011-09-30.. See also the neo-Latin term "psychopathia transexualis".
  29. ↑ Cauldwell, David O. (1950). Questions and answers on the sex life and sexual problems of trans-sexuals: trans-sexuals are individuals who are physically of one sex and apparently psychologically of the opposite sex : trans-sexuals include heterosexuals, homosexuals, bisexuals and others: a large element of transvestites have trans-sexual leanings. Big blue book. Haldeman-Julius Publications. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010.
  30. ↑ Money, John; Hampson, Joan G; Hampson, John (October 1955). "An Examination of Some Basic Sexual Concepts: The Evidence of Human Hermaphroditism". Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 97 (4): 301–19. PMID   13260820. By the term, gender role, we mean all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not restricted to sexuality in the sense of eroticism. Gender role is appraised in relation to the following: general mannerisms, deportment and demeanor, play preferences and recreational interests; spontaneous topics of talk in unprompted conversation and casual comment; content of dreams, daydreams, and fantasies; replies to oblique inquiries and projective tests; evidence of erotic practices and, finally, the person's own replies to direct inquiry.
  31. ↑ Green, Richard (2010-08-12). "Robert Stoller's Sex and Gender: 40 Years On" . Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (6): 1457–1465. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9665-5. ISSN   0004-0002. PMID   20703787. S2CID   38059570.
  32. 1 2 Randell, J B (1959). "Transvestitism and trans-sexualism. A study of 50 cases". British medical journal. 2 (5164): 1448–52. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5164.1448. p. 1448: [T]ransvestite and trans-sexualist[sic] individuals are predominantly homosexual in orientation and behavior. ... The term transvestism is not intended to include the wearing of the clothes of the opposite sex for theatrical purposes, burlesque, or disguise.
  33. ↑ "Virginia Charles Prince and Transvestia Magazine | ONE Archives". one.usc.edu. Archived from the original on September 30, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  34. 1 2 Richard Elkins and Dave King, ed. (2006). Virginia Prince: Pioneer of Transgendering. Binghamton: Haworth Medical Press Inc.
  35. ↑ "The Life and Times of Virginia", Transvestia #100 (1979)
  36. ↑ Prince, Virginia. "Seventy Years in the Trenches of the Gender Wars." Gender Bending. Eds. V. Bullough, B. Bullough, B. and J. Elias. New York: Prometheus Books, 1997.
  37. ↑
  38. 1 2 Prince, Virginia. "Seventy Years in the Trenches of the Gender Wars." Gender Bending. Eds. V. Bullough, B. Bullough, B. and J. Elias. New York: Prometheus Books, 1997.
  39. ↑ Richard Elkins and Dave King, ed. (2006). Virginia Prince: Pioneer of Transgendering. Binghamton: Haworth Medical Press Inc.
  40. ↑ Prince, Virginia (1976). Understanding Cross Dressing. Los Angeles: Chevalier.
  41. ↑ Prince, Virginia. "Sex Vs Gender." Proceedings of the Second Interdisciplinary Symposium on Gender Dysphoria Syndrome. Eds. D.R. Laub and P. Gandy. Stanford: Stanford University Medical Center, 1973.
  42. ↑ Prince, Virginia. (1979). "The Life and Times of Virginia." Transvestia, 17.100: 5–120.
  43. 1 2 Prince, C.V. (1957). "Homosexuality, Transvestism and Transsexualism". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 11 (1): 80–85. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1957.11.1.80. PMID   13394762.
  44. ↑ Pace, Eric (1986-08-27). "Harry Benjamin Dies at 101; Specialist in Transsexualism". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  45. 1 2 Goldberg, Abbie E. (2016-05-10). The SAGE Encyclopedia of LGBTQ Studies. SAGE Publications. pp. 509–510. ISBN   978-1-4833-7129-0.
  46. ↑ Green, Jamison (2020-01-31). "History, Societal Attitudes, and Contexts". In Schechter, Loren S. (ed.). Gender Confirmation Surgery: Principles and Techniques for an Emerging Field. Springer Nature. pp. 1–22. ISBN   978-3-030-29093-1.
  47. 1 2 "Trans Medical Care at the Office of Dr. Harry Benjamin – NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project". www.nyclgbtsites.org. Retrieved 2024-06-10.
  48. 1 2 The Sisterhood: Dr. Harry Benjamin "Dr. Harry Benjamin". Archived from the original on 2005-04-07. Retrieved 2021-07-05..
  49. ↑ "ICD-10 Version:2016". icd.who.int. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  50. ↑ "ICD-10 Version:2016". icd.who.int. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  51. ↑ Bollinger, Alex (2019-05-28). "The World Health Organization will no longer classify being transgender as a 'mental disorder'". LGBTQ Nation. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  52. ↑ "DSM-V" (PDF). The DSM Diagnostic Criteria for Transvestic Fetishism. American Psychiatric Association. 2009. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
  53. ↑ Taylor, Michael T.; Timm, Annette; Herrn, Rainer (30 October 2017). Not Straight from Germany: Sexual Publics and Sexual Citizenship Since Magnus Hirschfeld. University of Michigan Press. p. 44. ISBN   978-0-472-13035-1.
  54. ↑ Caplan, Jane (2011). "The Administration of Gender Identity in Nazi Germany" . History Workshop Journal. 72 (72): 171–180. doi:10.1093/hwj/dbr021. ISSN   1363-3554. JSTOR   41306843. PMID   22206119. Archived from the original on 24 November 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  55. ↑ Nunn, Zavier (August 2023). "Trans Liminality and the Nazi State". Past & Present. 260 (1): 123–157. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtac018.

Further reading

Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg The dictionary definition of transvestite at Wiktionary

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