Edible seaweed

Last updated
A dish of pickled spicy seaweed Sapporo Ichiban, Catford, London (4073176136).jpg
A dish of pickled spicy seaweed

Edible seaweed, or sea vegetables, are seaweeds that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes. [1] They typically contain high amounts of fiber. [2] [3] They may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae. [2] Seaweeds are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of polysaccharides [4] such as alginate, agar and carrageenan, gelatinous substances collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids have attained commercial significance, especially in food production as food additives. [5] The food industry exploits the gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties of these hydrocolloids. [6]

Contents

Most edible seaweeds are marine algae whereas most freshwater algae are toxic. Some marine algae contain acids that irritate the digestion canal, while others can have a laxative and electrolyte-balancing effect. [7] Most marine macroalgae are nontoxic in normal quantities, but members of the genus Lyngbya are potentially lethal. [8] Typically, poisoning is caused by eating fish which have fed on Lyngbya or on other fish which have done so; [8] this is called ciguatera poisoning. [8] Handling Lyngbya majuscula can also cause seaweed dermatitis. [9] Some species of Desmarestia are highly acidic, with vacuoles of sulfuric acid that can cause severe gastrointestinal disorders. [8]

Distribution

Seaweeds are used extensively as food in coastal cuisines around the world, particularly in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands. Edible seaweeds are especially prominent in the cuisines of China, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, and Hawaii. [10] [11] Seaweeds are also traditionally consumed in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, as well as in the islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. [10] The Māori people of New Zealand traditionally used a few species of red and green seaweed, [12] Several species are also eaten by Indigenous Australians. [13]

Seaweed is also consumed in many traditional European societies, in Iceland and western Norway, the Atlantic coast of France, northern and western Ireland, Wales and some coastal parts of South West England, [14] as well as New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Cooking with seaweed flakes has become more and more popular in the western hemisphere. [15]

Nutrition and uses

Corn chips flavoured and coloured with green algae Ulva spp. farmed in NSW, Australia Corn chips favoured and coloured with cultivated seaweed.jpg
Corn chips flavoured and coloured with green algae Ulva spp. farmed in NSW, Australia

Seaweeds are a good source of nutrients such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Polyphenols, polysaccharides, and sterols, as well as other bioactive molecules, are mainly responsible for the healthy properties associated with seaweed. If seaweeds are compared to terrestrial plants, they have a higher proportion of essential fatty acids as eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) fatty acids. [16]

Seaweed contains high levels of iodine, tyrosine relative to other foods. [17] It is also rich in calcium and magnesium. [18]

Seaweed is a possible vegan source of Vitamin B12. [19] The vitamin is obtained from symbiotic bacteria. [20] However, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics considers seaweed to be an unreliable source of Vitamin B12 for human nutrition. [21]

Seaweed are used in multiple cuisines:

Non-human feed:

Seaweeds are rich in polysaccharides that could potentially be exploited as prebiotic functional ingredients for both human and animal health applications. Prebiotics are non-digestible, selectively fermented compounds that stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial gut microbiota which, in turn, confer health benefits on the host. [23] In addition, there are several secondary metabolites that are synthesized by algae such as terpenoids, oxylipins, phlorotannins, volatile hydrocarbons, and products of mixed biogenetic origin. Therefore, algae can be considered as a natural source of great interest, since they contain compounds with numerous biological activities and can be used as a functional ingredient in many technological applications to obtain functional foods. Polysaccharides in seaweed may be metabolized in humans through the action of bacterial gut enzymes. Such enzymes are frequently produced in Japanese population due to their consumption of seaweeds. [24]

Chondrus crispus (commonly known as Irish moss) is another red alga used in producing various food additives, along with Kappaphycus and various gigartinoid seaweeds.

As a nutraceutical product, some edible seaweeds are associated with anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antimutagenic, antitumor, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antihyperthensive and neuroprotective properties.[ citation needed ] Edible red macroalgae such as Palmaria palmata (Dulse), Porphyra tenera (Nori), and Eisenia bicyclis have been measured as a relevant source of "alternative protein, minerals, and, eventually, fiber." [25]

Feeding the seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis to cows can reduce their methane emissions. [26]

East Asia

In some parts of Asia, nori 海苔 (in Japan), zicai 紫菜 (in China), and gim 김 (in Korea), sheets of the dried red alga Porphyra are used in soups or to wrap sushi or onigiri.

Japanese cuisine has common names for seven types of seaweed, and thus the term for seaweed in Japanese is used primarily in scientific applications, and not in reference to food.

Agar-agar (kanten 寒天) is also widely used as a substitute for gelatin. [27] Its use in Japan is believed to have been discovered accidentally by an innkeeper named Mino Tarōzaemon in the 17th century. However this origin is legendary. [28]

The dish often served in western Chinese restaurants as 'Crispy Seaweed' is not seaweed but cabbage that has been dried and then fried. [29]

Southeast Asia

Sea grapes (Caulerpa lentillifera and Caulerpa racemosa ) and Gusô ( Eucheuma spp.) are traditionally eaten in the cuisines of Southeast Asia (as well as in Oceania). [30] These edible warm-water seaweed were first commercially cultivated in the Philippines. In the northern Philippines, the cold-water red seaweeds Porphyra atropurpurea , Pyropia vietnamensis , Halymenia formosa , and related species are also traditionally harvested from the wild and dried into black nori-like sheets called gamet which are used as ingredients in cooking. [31] [32] [33] [10]

Numerous other species of seaweeds are traditionally eaten in Southeast Asia, mainly in the Philippines, but also in Indonesia (especially eastern Indonesia), Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, and Myanmar. These include some members of the genera Chaetomorpha , Enteromorpha , Hydroclathatrus , Padina , Sargassum , Palisada , Agardhiella , Gracilaria , Halymenia , Laurencia , Hypnea , Liagora , and Sarcodia . [10]

In the Philippines, a traditional ingredient is gulaman , which is made from agar (first attested in Spanish dictionaries in 1754) [34] and carrageenan (first attested in c.1637) [35] traditionally extracted mainly from Gracilaria spp. and Eucheuma spp. that grow in shallow marine coastal areas in the Philippines. In modern times, they are also mass-produced in the pioneering tropical seaweed farming industry in the country. It is also used as a substitute for gelatin. It is widely used in various traditional desserts. [36] [37] [38] Carrageenan as a gelatin substitute has also spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, like in Indonesia, where it is used for desserts like es campur.

Seaweed is also processed into noodles by residents of Tiwi, Albay, which can be cooked into pancit canton, pancit luglug, spaghetti or carbonara. [39]

Common edible seaweeds

Common edible seaweeds [41] [10] [42] include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agar</span> Thickening agent used in microbiology and food

Agar, or agar-agar, is a jelly-like substance consisting of polysaccharides obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae, primarily from "ogonori" (Gracilaria) and "tengusa" (Gelidiaceae). As found in nature, agar is a mixture of two components, the linear polysaccharide agarose and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin. It forms the supporting structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae and is released on boiling. These algae are known as agarophytes, belonging to the Rhodophyta phylum. The processing of food-grade agar removes the agaropectin, and the commercial product is essentially pure agarose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gelatin dessert</span> Dessert made with gelatin

Gelatin desserts are desserts made with a sweetened and flavoured processed collagen product (gelatin). This kind of dessert was first recorded as jelly by Hannah Glasse in her 18th-century book The Art of Cookery, appearing in a layer of trifle. Jelly is also featured in the best selling cookbooks of English food writers Eliza Acton and Isabella Beeton in the 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nori</span> Edible seaweed species of the red algae genus Pyropia

Nori(海苔) is a dried edible seaweed used in Japanese cuisine, usually made from species of the red algae genus Pyropia, including P. yezoensis and P. tenera. It has a strong and distinctive flavor, and is generally made into flat sheets and used to wrap rolls of sushi or onigiri.

<i>Chondrus crispus</i> Species of edible alga

Chondrus crispus—commonly called Irish moss or carrageenan moss —is a species of red algae which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. In its fresh condition it is soft and cartilaginous, varying in color from a greenish-yellow, through red, to a dark purple or purplish-brown. The principal constituent is a mucilaginous body, made of the polysaccharide carrageenan, which constitutes 55% of its dry weight. The organism also consists of nearly 10% dry weight protein and about 15% dry weight mineral matter, and is rich in iodine and sulfur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour. Because of the abundant cell wall polysaccharides, it will form a jelly when boiled, containing from 20 to 100 times its weight of water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrageenan</span> Natural linear sulfated polysaccharide

Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. Carrageenans are widely used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. In recent years, carrageenans have emerged as a promising candidate in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications as they resemble native glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). They have been mainly used for tissue engineering, wound coverage, and drug delivery.

<i>Caulerpa</i> Genus of seaweeds

Caulerpa is a genus of seaweeds in the family Caulerpaceae. They are unusual because they consist of only one cell with many nuclei, making them among the biggest single cells in the world.

<i>Caulerpa racemosa</i> Species of alga

Caulerpa racemosa is a species of edible green alga, a seaweed in the family Caulerpaceae. It is commonly known as sea grapes and is found in many areas of shallow sea around the world. Despite the name, it is not related to grapes. There are a number of different forms and varieties, and one that appeared in the Mediterranean Sea in 1990, which is giving cause for concern as an invasive species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algaculture</span> Aquaculture involving the farming of algae

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

<i>Porphyra</i> Genus of seaweed

Porphyra is a genus of coldwater seaweeds that grow in cold, shallow seawater. More specifically, it belongs to red algae phylum of laver species, comprising approximately 70 species. It grows in the intertidal zone, typically between the upper intertidal zone and the splash zone in cold waters of temperate oceans. In East Asia, it is used to produce the sea vegetable products nori and gim. There are considered to be 60–70 species of Porphyra worldwide and seven around Britain and Ireland, where it has been traditionally used to produce edible sea vegetables on the Irish Sea coast. The species Porphyra purpurea has one of the largest plastid genomes known, with 251 genes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laverbread</span> Food made from edible seaweed

Laverbread is a food product made from laver, an edible seaweed consumed mainly in Wales as part of local traditional cuisine. The seaweed is commonly found around the west coast of Great Britain, and the coasts of Ireland, where it is known as sleabhac. It is smooth in texture and forms delicate, sheetlike thalli, often clinging to rocks. The principal variety is Porphyra umbilicalis, a red algae which tends to be a brownish colour, but boils down to a dark green pulp when prepared. Laver seaweed has a high content of dietary minerals, particularly iodine and iron. The high iodine content gives the seaweed a distinctive flavour in common with olives and oysters.

<i>Caulerpa lentillifera</i> Species of seaweed

Caulerpa lentillifera or sea grape is a species of ulvophyte green algae from coastal regions in the Asia-Pacific. This seaweed is one of the favored species of edible Caulerpa due to its soft and succulent texture. It is traditionally eaten in the cuisines of Southeast Asia, Oceania, and East Asia. It was first commercially cultivated in the Philippines in the 1950s, followed by Japan in 1968. Both countries remain the top consumers of C. lentillifera. Its cultivation has since spread to other countries, including Vietnam, Taiwan, and China. C. lentillifera, along with C. racemosa, are also known as sea grapes or green caviar in English.

<i>Gulaman</i> Dried agar used to make jelly-like desserts in Filipino cuisine

Gulaman, in Filipino cuisine, is a bar, or powdered form, of dried agar or carrageenan extracted from edible seaweed used to make jelly-like desserts. In common usage, it also usually refers to the refreshment sago't gulaman, sometimes referred to as samalamig, sold at roadside stalls and vendors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed</span> Macroscopic marine algae

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon and producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red algae</span> Division of plant life

Red algae, or Rhodophyta, are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta comprises one of the largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with taxonomic revisions ongoing. The majority of species (6,793) are found in the Florideophyceae (class), and mostly consist of multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Red algae are abundant in marine habitats but relatively rare in freshwaters. Approximately 5% of red algae species occur in freshwater environments, with greater concentrations found in warmer areas. Except for two coastal cave dwelling species in the asexual class Cyanidiophyceae, there are no terrestrial species, which may be due to an evolutionary bottleneck in which the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seaweed farming</span> Farming of aquatic seaweed

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's life cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamet</span> Dried edible seaweed from the Philippines

Gamet is a traditional dried edible seaweed from Ilocos Norte and Cagayan of the Philippines, particularly from the town of Burgos. Gamet are dried into sheets or thin cakes called pedazo, which are characteristically purplish-black in color. It is used widely in soups, salads, omelets and other dishes, in the cuisines of the northern Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tokoroten</span> Seaweed-based Japanese dish

Tokoroten is a dish in Japanese cuisine made from agarophytes. Tokoroten has been eaten by the Japanese for over a thousand years. Tokoroten is thought to have been introduced to Japan from China during the Nara period. Tokoroten was traditionally made by boiling tengusa and then allowing the mixture to congeal into a jelly.

<i>Eucheuma</i> Genus of algae

Eucheuma, commonly known as sea moss or gusô, is a rhodophyte seaweed that may vary in color. Eucheuma species are used in the production of carrageenan, an ingredient for cosmetics, food processing, and industrial manufacturing, as well as a food source for people in the Philippines, Caribbean and parts of Indonesia and Malaysia. Eucheuma cottonii – which grows in the Caribbean and cultivated in the Philippines – is the particular species known as gusô. Other species include Betaphycus gelatinae, Eucheuma denticulatum, and several species of the genus Kappaphycus, including K. alvarezii. Since the mid-1970s, Kappaphycus and Eucheuma have been a major source for the expansion of the carrageenan industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gavino Trono</span> Filipino biologist (born 1931)

Gavino Trono Jr. is a Filipino marine biologist dubbed as the "Father of Kappaphycus farming". He was conferred the rank of National Scientist of the Philippines for contributions to the study of tropical marine phycology, focusing on seaweed biodiversity. He is currently a professor emeritus of the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute.

References

  1. ↑ Reynolds, Daman; Caminiti, Jeff; Edmundson, Scott J.; Gao, Song; Wick, Macdonald; Huesemann, Michael (2022-10-06). "Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 116 (4): 855–861. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqac190 . ISSN   0002-9165. PMID   35820048.
  2. 1 2 Garcia-Vaquero, M; Hayes, M (2016). "Red and green macroalgae for fish and animal feed and human functional food development". Food Reviews International. 32: 15–45. doi:10.1080/87559129.2015.1041184. hdl: 10197/12493 . S2CID   82049384.
  3. ↑ K.H. Wong, Peter C.K. Cheung (2000). "Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds: Part I — proximate composition, amino acid profiles and some physico-chemical properties". Food Chemistry. 71 (4): 475–482. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00175-8.
  4. ↑ Garcia-Vaquero, M; Rajauria, G; O'Doherty, J.V; Sweeney, T (2017-09-01). "Polysaccharides from macroalgae: Recent advances, innovative technologies and challenges in extraction and purification". Food Research International. 99 (Pt 3): 1011–1020. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2016.11.016. hdl: 10197/8191 . ISSN   0963-9969. PMID   28865611. S2CID   10531419.
  5. ↑ Round F.E. 1962 The Biology of the Algae. Edward Arnold Ltd.
  6. ↑ Garcia-Vaquero, M; Lopez-Alonso, M; Hayes, M (2017-09-01). "Assessment of the functional properties of protein extracted from the brown seaweed Himanthalia elongata (Linnaeus) S. F. Gray". Food Research International. 99 (Pt 3): 971–978. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2016.06.023. hdl: 10197/8228 . ISSN   0963-9969. PMID   28865623.
  7. ↑ Wiseman, John SAS Survival Handbook
  8. 1 2 3 4 Turner, Nancy J.; von Aderkas, Patrick (2009). "3: Poisonous Plants of Wild Areas". The North American Guide to Common Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms. Portland, OR: Timber Press. pp. 115–6. ISBN   9780881929294. OCLC   747112294.
  9. ↑ James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN   978-0-7216-2921-6.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Zaneveld, Jacques S. (1959). "The Utilization of Marine Algae in Tropical South and East Asia". Economic Botany. 13 (2): 89–131.
  11. ↑ "Seaweed as Human Food". Michael Guiry's Seaweed Site. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  12. ↑ "Kai Recipe's used by Kawhia Maori & Early Pioneers". Kawhia.maori.nz. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  13. ↑ Thurstan, R. H.; Brittain, Z.; Jones, D. S.; Cameron, E.; Dearnaley, J.; Bellgrove, A. (2018-01-23). "Aboriginal uses of seaweeds in temperate Australia: an archival assessment". Journal of Applied Phycology. 30 (3): 1821–1832. Bibcode:2018JAPco..30.1821T. doi:10.1007/s10811-017-1384-z. hdl: 10871/31766 . ISSN   0921-8971. S2CID   22620932.
  14. ↑ "Spotlight presenters in a lather over laver". BBC. 2005-05-25. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  15. ↑ "Famadillo - How to use seaweed flakes". Archived from the original on 12 April 2023.
  16. ↑ Peñalver, Rocío; Lorenzo, José M.; Ros, Gaspar; Amarowicz, Ryszard; Pateiro, Mirian; Nieto, Gema (2020). "Seaweeds as a Functional Ingredient for a Healthy Diet". Marine Drugs. 18 (6): 301. doi: 10.3390/md18060301 . PMC   7345263 . PMID   32517092.
  17. ↑ "Micronutrient Information Center: Iodine". Oregon State University: Linus Pauling Institute. 2014-04-23. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  18. ↑ "Albay folk promote seaweed 'pansit'". ABS-CBN Regional Network Group. 2008-04-08. Retrieved 2009-08-04.
  19. ↑ Watanabe, Fumio; Yabuta, Yukinori; Bito, Tomohiro; Teng, Fei (2014-05-05). "Vitamin B12-Containing Plant Food Sources for Vegetarians". Nutrients. 6 (5): 1861–1873. doi: 10.3390/nu6051861 . ISSN   2072-6643. PMC   4042564 . PMID   24803097.
  20. ↑ Smith AG (2019-09-21). "Plants need their vitamins too". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 10 (3): 266–75. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2007.04.009. PMID   17434786.
  21. ↑ Melina V, Craig W, Levin S (2016). "Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets". J Acad Nutr Diet. 116 (12): 1970–80. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025. PMID   27886704. S2CID   4984228. Fermented foods (such as tempeh), nori, spirulina, chlorella algae, and unfortified nutritional yeast cannot be relied upon as adequate or practical sources of B-12.39,40 Vegans must regularly consume reliable sources—meaning B-12 fortified foods or B-12 containing supplements—or they could become deficient, as shown in case studies of vegan infants, children, and adults.
  22. ↑ Makkar, Harinder P.S.; Tran, Gilles; Heuzé, Valérie; Giger-Reverdin, Sylvie; Lessire, Michel; Lebas, François; Ankers, Philippe (2016). "Seaweeds for livestock diets: A review". Animal Feed Science and Technology. 212: 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.09.018.
  23. ↑ O'Sullivan, L.; Murphy, B.; McLoughlin, P.; Duggan, P.; Lawlor, P. G.; Hughes, H.; Gardiner, G. E. (2010). "Prebiotics from Marine Macroalgae for Human and Animal Health Applications". Marine Drugs. 8 (7): 2038–2064. doi: 10.3390/md8072038 . PMC   2920542 . PMID   20714423.
  24. ↑ Hehemann, Jan-Hendrik; Correc, Gaëlle; Barbeyron, Tristan; Helbert, William; Czjzek, Mirjam; Michel, Gurvan (8 April 2010). "Transfer of carbohydrate-active enzymes from marine bacteria to Japanese gut microbiota". Nature. 464 (7290): 908–912. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..908H. doi:10.1038/nature08937. PMID   20376150. S2CID   2820027.
  25. ↑ Catarina, Costa; Filipa, Pimentel; Rita, Alves; Anabela, Costa; Arminda, Alves; Beatriz, Oliveira (2014). "Nutritional profile of edible red marine seaweeds". Frontiers in Marine Science . 1. doi: 10.3389/conf.fmars.2014.02.00091 . ISSN   2296-7745. OCLC   5707377199. Archived from the original on September 3, 2020.
  26. ↑ Milman, Oliver (2021-03-18). "Feeding cows seaweed could cut their methane emissions by 82%, scientists say". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2021-03-18. Retrieved 2021-11-24.
  27. ↑ Nunez, Kirsten (31 December 2019). "4 Gelatin Substitutes Every Vegan or Vegetarian Needs to Try". Clean Green Simple. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  28. ↑ Mary Jo Zimbro; David A. Power; Sharon M. Miller; George E. Wilson; Julie A. Johnson (eds.). Difco & BBL Manual (PDF) (2nd ed.). Becton Dickinson and Company. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-06. Retrieved 2013-07-17.
  29. ↑ Hom, Ken (2012). "Crisp Seeweed". Good Food Channel. UK TV.CO.UK. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
  30. ↑ Paul, Nicholas A.; Neveux, Nicolas; Magnusson, Marie; de Nys, Rocky (21 December 2013). "Comparative production and nutritional value of "sea grapes" — the tropical green seaweeds Caulerpa lentillifera and C. racemosa". Journal of Applied Phycology. doi:10.1007/s10811-013-0227-9. S2CID   15745994.
  31. ↑ Adriano, Leilanie G. (21 December 2005). "'Gamet' sushi festival launched". The Manila Times. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  32. ↑ "Gamet". Museo Ilocos Norte. 28 May 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  33. ↑ "Cagayan town passes seaweed protection law". The Manila Times. 15 December 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  34. ↑ de Noceda, Juan; de Sanlucar, Pedro (1754). Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala. Imprenta de la compañia de Jesus. pp. 101, 215.
  35. ↑ de Mentrida, Alonso (1841). Diccionario De La Lengua Bisaya, Hiligueina Y Haraya de la isla de Panay. En La Imprenta De D. Manuel Y De D. Felis Dayot. p. 380.
  36. ↑ Marine Plants Section, National Fisheries Research and Development Institute. Gracilaria species in the Philippines (PDF). Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Agriculture, Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
  37. ↑ Albert H. Wells (1916). "Possibilities of Gulaman Dagat as a Substitute for Gelatin in Food". The Philippine Journal of Science. 11: 267–271.
  38. ↑ Montaño, Marco Nemesio E. (16 September 2004). "Gelatin, gulaman, 'JellyAce,' atbp". PhilStar Global. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  39. ↑ Blogger, Meridian Sea. "Cooking with Seaweed and the Health Benefits - Seaweed Varieties in UK". Meridian Sea Limited.
  40. ↑ Dawes, Clinton J. (1998). Marine botany. New York: John Wiley. ISBN   978-0-471-19208-4.
  41. ↑ Harrison, M. (2008). "Edible Seaweeds around the British Isles". Wild Food School. Archived from the original on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  42. ↑ Dumilag, Richard V.; Belgica, Teresa Haide R.; Mendoza, Lynn C.; Hibay, Janet M.; Arevalo, Abel E.; Malto, Mark Ariel D.; Orgela, Elden G.; Longavela, Mabille R.; Corral, Laurence Elmer H.; Olipany, Ruby D.; Ruiz, Caesar Franz C.; Mintu, Cynthia B.; Laza, Benilda O.; Pablo, Mae H. San; Bailon, Jinky D.; Berdin, Leny D.; Calaminos, Franklin P.; Gregory, Sheryll A.; Omoto, Annie T.; Chua, Vivien L.; Liao, Lawrence M. (15 September 2022). "Seaweed ethnobotany of eastern Sorsogon, Philippines". Algae. 37 (3): 227–237. doi: 10.4490/algae.2022.37.8.16 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.