Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae. Zygomycota is no longer recognised as it was not believed to be truly monophyletic.
Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or "gray mold".
An endophyte is an endosymbiont, often a bacterium or fungus, that lives within a plant for at least part of its life cycle without causing apparent disease. Endophytes are ubiquitous and have been found in all species of plants studied to date; however, most of the endophyte/plant relationships are not well understood. Some endophytes may enhance host growth and nutrient acquisition and improve the plant's ability to tolerate abiotic stresses, such as drought, and decrease biotic stresses by enhancing plant resistance to insects, pathogens and herbivores. Although endophytic bacteria and fungi are frequently studied, endophytic archaea are increasingly being considered for their role in plant growth promotion as part of the core microbiome of a plant.
Latrodectus geometricus, commonly known as the brown widow, brown button spider, grey widow, brown black widow, house button spider or geometric button spider, is one of the widow spiders in the genus Latrodectus. As such, it is a 'cousin' to the more infamous Latrodectus mactans. L. geometricus has black and white patterns on the sides of its abdomen as well as an orange-yellow colored hourglass shape marking. Their eggs are easily identified by points that project from all over the egg sacs. L. geometricus are found all over the world, but are believed to originate in Africa or South America. Their bites, though painful, are not considered to be dangerous.
Kaempferol (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a natural flavonol, a type of flavonoid, found in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods including kale, beans, tea, spinach, and broccoli. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of 276–278 °C (529–532 °F). It is slightly soluble in water and highly soluble in hot ethanol, ethers, and DMSO. Kaempferol is named for 17th-century German naturalist Engelbert Kaempfer.
Mucor is a microbial genus of approximately 40 species of molds in the family Mucoraceae. Species are commonly found in soil, digestive systems, plant surfaces, some cheeses like Tomme de Savoie, rotten vegetable matter and iron oxide residue in the biosorption process.
Alternaria is a genus of Deuteromycetes fungi. All species are known as major plant pathogens. They are also common allergens in humans, growing indoors and causing hay fever or hypersensitivity reactions that sometimes lead to asthma. They are present in the human mycobiome and readily cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised people such as AIDS patients.
Choanephora cucurbitarum is a fungal plant pathogen that causes fruit and blossom rot of various cucurbits. It can also affect okra, snap bean, and southern pea, and may cause a stem and leaf rot of Withania somnifera. Recently Das et al. 2017 added few more patho-index on aubergine, teasle gourd (Momordica subangulata Blume subsp. renigera de Wilde, hyacinth bean, green pea from India. Wet weather, high temperature and high humidity favor disease development from inoculum that is typically soil-borne. Signs of infection on fruits or leaves include water-soaked, necrotic lesions, which progress rapidly under ideal conditions. As the fungus begins to produce spores, affected tissues become dark grey-brown and hairy as a result of the superficial sporangia.
Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould, is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor. Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains. It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits due to similar mould growth shape and colour. Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato. Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo. The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.
Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the division Mucoromycota. It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886. It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods.
Acremonium strictum is an environmentally widespread saprotroph species found in soil, plant debris, and rotting mushrooms. Isolates have been collected in North and Central America, Asia, Europe and Egypt. A. strictum is an agent of hyalohyphomycosis and has been identified as an increasingly frequent human pathogen in immunosuppressed individuals, causing localized, disseminated and invasive infections. Although extremely rare, A. strictum can infect immunocompetent individuals, as well as neonates. Due to the growing number of infections caused by A. strictum in the past few years, the need for new medical techniques in the identification of the fungus as well as for the treatment of human infections has risen considerably.
Microdochium phragmitis is a newly recovered species that mycologists are still distinguishing from other Microdochium species. This fungus has a regular Microdochium shape that can only be seen microscopically. There is no fruiting mushroom body, so finding it in the field can be difficult. It is categorized as an ascomycetous fungal plant pathogen.
Mucor amphibiorum is a fungus found in Australia that causes infections in amphibians and platypuses. Because M. amphibiorum belongs to the genus Mucor, the infection is classified as a form of mucormycosis. The fungus was first reported from a German zoo in 1972 where it caused disease in a species of green tree frog that was imported from Australia and infected frogs, toads, and salamanders in neighboring exhibits. It is most commonly found in frogs and toads in Queensland, New South Wales, and Northern Territory, and in platypuses in Tasmania.
Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense occurs when endophytic fungi, which live symbiotically with the majority of plants by entering their cells, are utilized as an indirect defense against herbivores. In exchange for carbohydrate energy resources, the fungus provides benefits to the plant which can include increased water or nutrient uptake and protection from phytophagous insects, birds or mammals. Once associated, the fungi alter nutrient content of the plant and enhance or begin production of secondary metabolites. The change in chemical composition acts to deter herbivory by insects, grazing by ungulates and/or oviposition by adult insects. Endophyte-mediated defense can also be effective against pathogens and non-herbivory damage.
Fungal isolates have been researched for decades. Because fungi often exist in thin mycelial monolayers, with no protective shell, immune system, and limited mobility, they have developed the ability to synthesize a variety of unusual compounds for survival. Researchers have discovered fungal isolates with anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bio-active properties. The first statins, β-Lactam antibiotics, as well as a few important antifungals, were discovered in fungi.
Trichothecium roseum is a fungus in the division Ascomycota first reported in 1809. It is characterized by its flat and granular colonies which are initially white and develop to be light pink in color. This fungus reproduces asexually through the formation of conidia with no known sexual state. Trichothecium roseum is distinctive from other species of the genus Trichothecium in its characteristic zigzag patterned chained conidia. It is found in various countries worldwide and can grow in a variety of habitats ranging from leaf litter to fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites including mycotoxins, such as roseotoxins and trichothecenes, which can infect and spoil a variety of fruit crops. It can act as both a secondary and opportunistic pathogen by causing pink rot on various fruits and vegetables and thus has an economical impact on the farming industry. Secondary metabolites of T. roseum, specifically Trichothecinol A, are being investigated as potential anti-metastatic drugs. Several agents including harpin, silicon oxide, and sodium silicate are potential inhibitors of T. roseum growth on fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum is mainly a plant pathogen and has yet to show a significant impact on human health.
Rhizopus oryzae is a filamentous heterothallic microfungus that occurs as a saprotroph in soil, dung, and rotting vegetation. This species is very similar to Rhizopus stolonifer, but it can be distinguished by its smaller sporangia and air-dispersed sporangiospores. It differs from R. oligosporus and R. microsporus by its larger columellae and sporangiospores. The many strains of R. oryzae produce a wide range of enzymes such as carbohydrate digesting enzymes and polymers along with a number of organic acids, ethanol and esters giving it useful properties within the food industries, bio-diesel production, and pharmaceutical industries. It is also an opportunistic pathogen of humans causing mucormycosis.
Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus belonging to the Order Mucorales. It has a worldwide distribution, found mostly in soil, dung and root vegetables. This species is described as not known to be able to produce mycotoxins, however it has been frequently reported to infect animals such as cattle and swine, as well as fowl, platypus and occasionally humans. Ketoacidotic patients are particularly at risk for infection by M. circinelloides.
Mortierella polycephala is a saprotrophic fungus with a wide geographical distribution occurring in many different habitats from soil and plants to salt marshes and slate slopes. It is the type species of the genus Mortierella, and was first described in 1863 by Henri Coemans. A characteristic feature of the fungus is the presence of stylospores, which are aerial, spiny resting spores (chlamydospores).
Mucoromycota is a division within the kingdom fungi. It includes a diverse group of various molds, including the common bread molds Mucor and Rhizopus. It is a sister phylum to Dikarya.
