Paramphistomum

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Paramphistomum
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Plagiorchiida
Family: Paramphistomidae
Genus: Paramphistomum
Fischoeder, 1901
Type species
Paramphistomum cervi
Zeder, 1790

Paramphistomum is a genus of parasitic flatworms belonging to the digenetic trematodes. It includes flukes which are mostly parasitising livestock ruminants, as well as some wild mammals. They are responsible for the serious disease called paramphistomiasis, also known as amphistomosis, especially in cattle and sheep. Its symptoms include profuse diarrhoea, anaemia, lethargy, and often result in death if untreated. [1] [2] They are found throughout the world, and most abundantly in livestock farming regions such as Australia, Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia. [3]

Contents

The generic name was introduced by F. Fischoeder in 1901 for the replacement of the then existing genus Amphistoma (Rudolphi, 1809). Under the new genus he redescribed both Paramphistomum cervi and P. bothriophoron and designated the former as the type species. [4] [5]

Species

Due to striking resemblance with each other and with other amphistomes, a number of described species are known to be synonymous. [5] [6] Some important species are:

Description

The generic name (Greek: para meaning "similar" [to Amphistoma], amphi meaning "on both sides", and stoma for "mouth") is given due to the presence of an anterior oral sucker and a posterior larger ventral sucker in adult worms. [3] The body is minute, measuring less than a centimetre. The body is covered with a highly folded tegument, which in turn is provided with sensory papillae. Paramphistomum are all hermaphrodite, having both male and female reproductive systems in the posterior region of the body. [2]

Life cycle

Their life cycle is indirect, requiring a definitive host such as ruminants, an intermediate host such as snail, and a free-living of external phases in water and plants. The sexually mature monoecious self-fertilises in the mammalian rumen, and release the eggs along with faeces. Eggs hatch in water into ciliated miracidia. The miracidia then enters the body of an intermediate host, which are snails belonging to the genera Bulinus , Planorbis , Physa Stagnicola and Pseudosuccinea . [7] [8] [9] [10] Then the miracidia lost their cilia to become sporocysts. After a few days they develop up to 8 rediae, which are rapidly liberated. Each redia contains about 15-30 cercariae. Mature cercariae are possess by two eyespots and a long slender tail, by which they find aquatic plants or other suitable substrata, to which they get attached and encyst to become metacercariae. [11] The mammalian hosts ingest the infective larvae. Once inside the duodenum and jejunum, their cysts are removed. [12] They penetrate the intestinal wall by actively destroying the mucosa, and then migrate to the rumen, where the grow into adult. [13]

Pathogenicity and pathology

Paramphistomiasis causes enteritis and anaemia in livestock mammals and result in substantial production and economic losses. Pathological symptoms are produced by immature flukes. When the young flukes start to gather in the intestine, there is a watery and fetid diarrhoea which is often associated with high mortality (even up to 80-90%) in ruminants. At a given time, as many as 30,000 flukes may accumulate, fervently attacking the duodenal mucosa to induce acute enteritis. Adult flukes are relatively harmless. [14] Liver tissue are generally damaged extensively, indicated by swelling, haemorrhage, discolouration, necrosis, bile duct hyperplasia, and fibrosis. [15]

Diagnosis and treatment

Symptoms are easily indicated by infected sheep and cattle as they become severely anorexic or inefficiently digest food, and become unthrifty. Fetid diarrhoea is an obvious indication so that fluid faeces are examined for immature flukes. [2]

Paramphistomiasis is considered a neglected tropical disease, with no prescription drug for treatment and control. Thus management of infection is based mainly on control of the snail population. Drugs shown to be effective are resorantel, oxyclozanide, clorsulon, ivermectin, niclosamide, bithional and levamisole. [7] [16] [17] [18] An in vitro demonstration shows that plumbagin exhibits high efficacy on adult flukes. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trematoda</span> Class of parasitic flatworms

Trematoda is a class of flatworms known as flukes or trematodes. They are obligate internal parasites with a complex life cycle requiring at least two hosts. The intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs, is usually a snail. The definitive host, where the flukes sexually reproduce, is a vertebrate. Infection by trematodes can cause disease in all five traditional vertebrate classes: mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish.

<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i> Species of fluke

Clonorchis sinensis, the Chinese liver fluke, is a liver fluke belonging to the class Trematoda, phylum Platyhelminthes. It infects fish-eating mammals, including humans. In humans, it infects the common bile duct and gall bladder, feeding on bile. It was discovered by British physician James McConnell at the Medical College Hospital in Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1874. The first description was given by Thomas Spencer Cobbold, who named it Distoma sinense. The fluke passes its lifecycle in three different hosts, namely freshwater snail as first intermediate hosts, freshwater fish as second intermediate host, and mammals as definitive hosts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fasciolosis</span> Parasitic worm infection

Fasciolosis is a parasitic worm infection caused by the common liver fluke Fasciola hepatica as well as by Fasciola gigantica. The disease is a plant-borne trematode zoonosis, and is classified as a neglected tropical disease (NTD). It affects humans, but its main host is ruminants such as cattle and sheep. The disease progresses through four distinct phases; an initial incubation phase of between a few days up to three months with little or no symptoms; an invasive or acute phase which may manifest with: fever, malaise, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, urticaria, anemia, jaundice, and respiratory symptoms. The disease later progresses to a latent phase with less symptoms and ultimately into a chronic or obstructive phase months to years later. In the chronic state the disease causes inflammation of the bile ducts, gall bladder and may cause gall stones as well as fibrosis. While chronic inflammation is connected to increased cancer rates, it is unclear whether fasciolosis is associated with increased cancer risk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albendazole</span> Chemical compound

Albendazole is a broad-spectrum antihelmintic and antiprotozoal agent of the benzimidazole type. It is used for the treatment of a variety of intestinal parasite infections, including ascariasis, pinworm infection, hookworm infection, trichuriasis, strongyloidiasis, taeniasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, cutaneous larva migrans, giardiasis, and gnathostomiasis, among other diseases.

<i>Fasciola hepatica</i> Species of fluke

Fasciola hepatica, also known as the common liver fluke or sheep liver fluke, is a parasitic trematode of the class Trematoda, phylum Platyhelminthes. It infects the livers of various mammals, including humans, and is transmitted by sheep and cattle to humans all over the world. The disease caused by the fluke is called fasciolosis or fascioliasis, which is a type of helminthiasis and has been classified as a neglected tropical disease. Fasciolosis is currently classified as a plant/food-borne trematode infection, often acquired through eating the parasite's metacercariae encysted on plants. F. hepatica, which is distributed worldwide, has been known as an important parasite of sheep and cattle for decades and causes significant economic losses in these livestock species, up to £23 million in the UK alone. Because of its relatively large size and economic importance, it has been the subject of many scientific investigations and may be the best-known of any trematode species. F. hepatica's closest relative is Fasciola gigantica. These two flukes are sister species; they share many morphological features and can mate with each other.

<i>Fasciola gigantica</i> Species of fluke

Fasciola gigantica is a parasitic flatworm of the class Trematoda, which causes tropical fascioliasis. It is regarded as one of the most important single platyhelminth infections of ruminants in Asia and Africa. The infection is commonly called fasciolosis.

<i>Fascioloides magna</i> Species of fluke

Fascioloides magna, also known as giant liver fluke, large American liver fluke or deer fluke, is trematode parasite that occurs in wild and domestic ruminants in North America and Europe. Adult flukes occur in the liver of the definitive host and feed on blood. Mature flukes measure 4 to 10 centimetres in length × 2 to 3.5 centimetres in width, and have an oval dorso-ventrally flattened body with oral and ventral sucker. The flukes are reddish-brown in colour and are covered by tegument. As with other digenean trematodes, the life cycle includes intramolluscan phase in snails. The parasite is currently distributed in wild ruminants in North America and Europe, including Austria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, and the United States.

<i>Paragonimus westermani</i> Species of fluke

Paragonimus westermani is the most common species of lung fluke that infects humans, causing paragonimiasis. Human infections are most common in eastern Asia and in South America. Paragonimiasis may present as a sub-acute to chronic inflammatory disease of the lung. It was discovered by Coenraad Kerbert (1849–1927) in 1878.

<i>Echinostoma</i> Genus of flukes

Echinostoma is a genus of trematodes (flukes), which can infect both humans and other animals. These intestinal flukes have a three-host life cycle with snails or other aquatic organisms as intermediate hosts, and a variety of animals, including humans, as their definitive hosts.

<i>Dicrocoelium dendriticum</i> Species of fluke

Dicrocoelium dendriticum, the lancet liver fluke, is a parasite fluke that tends to live in cattle or other grazing mammals.

Moniezia expansa is commonly known as sheep tapeworm or double-pored ruminant tapeworm. It is a large tapeworm inhabiting the small intestines of ruminants such as sheep, goats and cattle. It has been reported from Peru that pigs are also infected. There is an unusual report of human infection in an Egyptian. It is characterized by unarmed scolex, presence of two sets of reproductive systems in each proglottid, and each proglottid being very short but very broad.

<i>Philophthalmus gralli</i> Species of fluke

Philophthalmus gralli, commonly known as the Oriental avian eye fluke, parasitises the conjunctival sac of the eyes of many species of birds, including birds of the orders Galliformes and Anseriformes. In Brazil this parasite was reported in native Anseriformes species. It was first discovered by Mathis and Leger in 1910 in domestic chickens from Hanoi, Vietnam. Birds are definitive hosts and freshwater snail species are intermediate hosts. Human cases of philophthalmosis are rare, but have been previously reported in Europe, Asia, and America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxfendazole</span> Chemical compound

Oxfendazole is a broad spectrum benzimidazole anthelmintic. Its main use is for protecting livestock against roundworm, strongyles and pinworms. Oxfendazole is the sulfoxide metabolite of fenbendazole.

Paramphistomum cervi, the type species of Paramphistomum, is a parasitic flat worm belonging to the class Trematoda. It is a tiny fluke mostly parasitising livestock ruminants, as well as some wild mammals. Uniquely, unlike most parasites, the adult worms are relatively harmless, but it is the developing juveniles that cause serious disease called paramphistomiasis, especially in cattle and sheep. Its symptoms include profuse diarrhoea, anaemia, lethargy, and often result in death if untreated.

Amphistomiasis is a parasitic disease of livestock animals, more commonly of cattle and sheep, and humans caused by immature helminthic flatworms belonging to the order Echinostomida. The term amphistomiasis is used for broader connotation implying the disease inflicted by members of Echinostomida including the family Paramphistomidae/Gastrodiscidae ; whereas paramphistomiasis is restricted to that of the members of the family Paramphistomidae only. G. discoides and Watsonius watsoni are responsible for the disease in humans, while most paramphistomes are responsible in livestock animals, and some wild mammals. In livestock industry the disease causes heavy economic backlashes due to poor production of milk, meat and wool.

<i>Metagonimus yokogawai</i> Species of fluke

Metagonimus yokogawai, or the Yokogawa fluke, is a species of a trematode, or fluke worm, in the family Heterophyidae.

<i>Cooperia oncophora</i> Species of roundworm

Cooperia oncophora is one of the most common intestinal parasitic nematodes in cattle in temperate regions. Infections with C. oncophora may result in mild clinical symptoms, but can lead to weight loss and damage of the small intestine, especially when co-infections with other nematodes such as O. ostertagi occur. Infections are usually treated with broad-spectrum anthelmintics such as benzimidazole, but resistance to these drugs has developed in the last decades and is now very common. C. oncophora has a direct life cycle. Infective larvae are ingested by the host. The larvae grow to adults, which reproduce in the small intestines. Eggs are shed onto the pasture with the faeces, which leads to new infections. Co-infections with other gastro-intestinal nematodes such as O. ostertagi and H. contortus are common.

Schistosoma bovis is a two-host blood fluke, that causes intestinal schistosomiasis in ruminants in North Africa, Mediterranean Europe and the Middle East. S. bovis is mostly transmitted by Bulinus freshwater snail species. It is one of nine haematobium group species and exists in the same geographical areas as Schistosoma haematobium, with which it can hybridise. S. bovis-haematobium hybrids can infect humans, and have been reported in Senegal since 2009, and a 2013 outbreak in Corsica.

A trypanotolerant organism is one which is relatively less affected by trypanosome infestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastropod-borne parasitic disease</span> Medical condition

Gastropod-borne parasitic diseases (GPDs) are a group of infectious diseases that require a gastropod species to serve as an intermediate host for a parasitic organism that can infect humans upon ingesting the parasite or coming into contact with contaminated water sources. These diseases can cause a range of symptoms, from mild discomfort to severe, life-threatening conditions, with them being prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly in developing regions. Preventive measures such as proper sanitation and hygiene practices, avoiding contact with infected gastropods and cooking or boiling food properly can help to reduce the risk of these diseases.

References

  1. ↑ Horak IG (1971). "Paramphistomiasis of domestic ruminants". Advances in Parasitology Volume 9. Vol. 9. pp. 33–72. doi:10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60159-1. ISBN   9780120317097. PMID   4927976.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. 1 2 3 Olsen OW (1974). Animal Parasites: Their Life Cycles and Ecology (3 ed.). Dover Publications, Inc., New York/University Park Press, Baltimore, US. pp. 273–276. ISBN   978-0486651262.
  3. 1 2 Boray J (1959). "Studies on intestinal amphistomosis in cattle". Australian Veterinary Journal. 35 (6): 282–287. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1959.tb08480.x.
  4. ↑ Fischoeder F (1904). Beschreibung dreier Paramphistomiden-Arten aus Säugethieren. Fischer, Germany. pp. 1–18.
  5. 1 2 Eduardo SL (1982). "The taxonomy of the family Paramphistomidae Fischoeder, 1901 with special reference to the morphology of species occurring in ruminants. II. Revision of the genus Paramphistomum Fischoeder, 1901". Systematic Parasitology. 4 (3): 189–238. doi:10.1007/BF00009622. S2CID   38590618.
  6. ↑ Lotfy WM, Brant SV, Ashmawy KI, Devkota R, Mkoji GM, Loker ES (2010). "A molecular approach for identification of paramphistomes from Africa and Asia". Veterinary Parasitology. 174 (3–4): 234–40. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.08.027. PMID   20880634.
  7. 1 2 Bowman DD, Georgi JR (2008). Georgis' Parasitology for Veterinarians (9 ed.). W.B. Saunders Company. p. 124. ISBN   978-1416044123.
  8. ↑ Duri PH (1978). "A preliminary note on the life cycle of Paramphistomum cotylophorum (Fisohoeder, 1901), and P. cervi (Schrank, 1790) (Trematoda: Paramphistomatidae)". Australian Veterinary Journal. 25 (9): 209. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1949.tb04802.x.
  9. ↑ Altaif KI, Al-Abbassy SN, Al-Saqur IM, Jawad AK (1978). "Experimental studies on the suitability of aquatic snails as intermediate hosts for Paramphistomum cervi in Iraq". Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 72 (2): 151–155. doi:10.1080/00034983.1978.11719297. PMID   666386.
  10. ↑ Albaret, J.-L.; Bayssade-Dufour, Christiane; Guilhon, J.; Kulo, S. D.; Picot, H. (1978). "Cycle biologique de Paramphistomum togolense n. sp. (Trematoda, Paramphistomidae)". Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée. 53 (5): 495–510. doi: 10.1051/parasite/1978535495 . PMID   742803. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  11. ↑ Kraneburg W (1977). "Contribution to the biology and pathogenicity of domestic omasal leech Paramphistomum cervi. 1. Developmental stages in the free state and in the intermediary host". Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 90 (16): 316–320. PMID   588222.
  12. ↑ Arru E, Deiana S, Muzzetto P (1970). "Intestinal paramphistomiasis in ruminants. Experimental infection of sheep with metacercariae and immature forms of Paramphistomum cervi (Schrank, 1790)". Rivista di Parassitologia. 31 (1): 33–42. PMID   5530163.
  13. ↑ Sanabria RE, Romero JR (2008). "Review and update of paramphistomosis". Helminthologia. 45 (2): 64–68. doi: 10.2478/s11687-008-0012-5 .
  14. ↑ Singh RP, Sahai BN, Jha GJ (1984). "Histopathology of the duodenum and rumen of goats during experimental infections with Paramphistomum cervi". Veterinary Parasitology. 15 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1016/0304-4017(84)90108-0. PMID   6541393.
  15. ↑ Bilqees Fm; Mirza S; Khatoon N (2011). Paramphistomum Cervi Infection and Liver Tissue Damage in Buffaloes. VDM Verlag. pp. 1–112. ISBN   978-3639325546.
  16. ↑ Georgiev B, Gruev A (1979). "Effectiveness of levamisole and oxyclozanide in paramphistomiasis in sheep and cattle". Vet Med Nauki. 16 (3): 45–51. PMID   524749.
  17. ↑ Rolfe PF, Boray JC (1987). "Chemotherapy of paramphistomosis in cattle". Australian Veterinary Journal. 64 (11): 328–332. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1987.tb06060.x. PMID   3447575.
  18. ↑ Rolfe PF, Boray JC (1988). "Chemotherapy of paramphistomosis in sheep". Australian Veterinary Journal. 65 (5): 148–150. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1988.tb14443.x. PMID   3401161.
  19. ↑ Saowakon N, Lorsuwannarat N, Changklungmoa N, Wanichanon C, Sobhon P (2013). "Paramphistomum cervi: the in vitro effect of plumbagin on motility, survival and tegument structure". Experimental Parasitology. 133 (2): 179–186. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2012.11.018. PMID   23206952.
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