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An endosymbiont or endobiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism most often, though not always, in a mutualistic relationship. (The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον endon "within", σύν syn "together" and βίωσις biosis "living".) Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live in the root nodules of legumes, single-cell algae inside reef-building corals and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to insects.
In prokaryote nomenclature, Candidatus is used to name prokaryotic phyla that are well characterized but yet-uncultured. Contemporary sequencing approaches, such as 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing or metagenomics, provide much information about the analyzed organisms and thus allow to identify and characterize individual species. However, the majority of prokaryotic species remain uncultivable and hence inaccessible for further characterization in in vitro study. The recent discoveries of a multitude of candidate taxa has led to candidate phyla radiation expanding the tree of life through the new insights in bacterial diversity.
A bacteriocyte, also known as a mycetocyte, is a specialized adipocyte found primarily in certain insect groups such as aphids, tsetse flies, German cockroaches, weevils. These cells contain endosymbiotic organisms such as bacteria and fungi, which provide essential amino acids and other chemicals to their host. Bacteriocytes may aggregate into a specialized organ called the bacteriome.
Paratransgenesis is a technique that attempts to eliminate a pathogen from vector populations through transgenesis of a symbiont of the vector. The goal of this technique is to control vector-borne diseases. The first step is to identify proteins that prevent the vector species from transmitting the pathogen. The genes coding for these proteins are then introduced into the symbiont, so that they can be expressed in the vector. The final step in the strategy is to introduce these transgenic symbionts into vector populations in the wild. One use of this technique is to prevent mortality for humans from insect-borne diseases. Preventive methods and current controls against vector-borne diseases depend on insecticides, even though some mosquito breeds may be resistant to them. There are other ways to fully eliminate them. “Paratransgenesis focuses on utilizing genetically modified insect symbionts to express molecules within the vector that are deleterious to pathogens they transmit.” The acidic bacteria Asaia symbionts are beneficial in the normal development of mosquito larvae; however, it is unknown what Asais symbionts do to adult mosquitoes.
"Candidatus Midichloria" is a candidatus genus of Gram-negative, non-endospore-forming bacteria, with a bacillus shape around 0.45 µm in diameter and 1.2 µm in length. First described in 2004 with the temporary name IricES1, "Candidatus Midichloria" species are symbionts of several species of hard ticks. They live in the cells of the ovary of the females of this tick species. These bacteria have been observed in the mitochondria of the host cells, a trait that has never been described in any other symbiont of animals.
The rice weevil is a stored product pest which attacks seeds of several crops, including wheat, rice, and maize.
Serratia symbiotica is a species of bacteria that lives as a symbiont of aphids. In the aphid Cinara cedri, it coexists with Buchnera aphidicola, given the latter cannot produce tryptophan. It is also known to habitate in Aphis fabae. Together with other endosymbionts, it provides aphids protection against parasitoids.
Regiella insecticola is a species of bacteria, that lives as a symbiont of aphids. It shows a relationship with Photorhabdus species, together with Hamiltonella defensa. Together with other endosymbionts, it provides aphids protection against parasitoids.
Hamiltonella defensa is a species of bacteria. It is maternally or sexually transmitted and lives as an endosymbiont of whiteflies and aphids, meaning that it lives within a host, protecting its host from attack. It does this through bypassing the host's immune responses by protecting its host against parasitoid wasps. However, H. defensa is only defensive if infected by a virus. H. defensa shows a relationship with Photorhabdus species, together with Regiella insecticola. Together with other endosymbionts, it provides aphids protection against parasitoids. It is known to habitate Bemisia tabaci.
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Crataerina melbae is a species of biting fly in the family of louse flies Hippoboscidae. Its hosts are swift species including the Alpine, Pacific, Common and mottled swifts.
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Nasuia deltocephalinicola was reported in 2013 to have the smallest genome of all bacteria, with 112,091 nucleotides. For comparison, the human genome has 3.2 billion nucleotides. The second smallest genome, from bacteria Tremblaya princeps, has 139,000 nucleotides. While N. deltocephalinicola has the smallest number of nucleotides, it has more protein-coding genes (137) than some bacteria.
The initial acquisition of microbiota is the formation of an organism's microbiota immediately before and after birth. The microbiota are all the microorganisms including bacteria, archaea and fungi that colonize the organism. The microbiome is another term for microbiota or can refer to the collected genomes.
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Hologenomics is the omics study of hologenomes. A hologenome is the whole set of genomes of a holobiont, an organism together with all co-habitating microbes, other life forms, and viruses. While the term hologenome originated from the hologenome theory of evolution, which postulates that natural selection occurs on the holobiont level, hologenomics uses an integrative framework to investigate interactions between the host and its associated species. Examples include gut microbe or viral genomes linked to human or animal genomes for host-microbe interaction research. Hologenomics approaches have also been used to explain genetic diversity in the microbial communities of marine sponges.
Vertical transmission of symbionts is the transfer of a microbial symbiont from the parent directly to the offspring. Many metazoan species carry symbiotic bacteria which play a mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic role. A symbiont is acquired by a host via horizontal, vertical, or mixed transmission.
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Candidatus Arsenophonus arthropodicus is a Gram-negative and intracellular secondary (S) endosymbiont that belongs to the genus Arsenophonus. This bacterium is found in the Hippoboscid louse fly, Pseudolynchia canariensis. S-endosymbionts are commonly found in distinct tissues. Strains of recovered Arsenophonus found in arthropods share 99% sequence identification in the 16S rRNA gene across all species. Arsenophonus-host interactions involve parasitism and mutualism, including a popular mechanism of "male-killing" found commonly in a related species, Arsenophonus nasoniae. This species is considered "Ca. A. arthropodicus" due it being as of yet uncultured.
Candidatus "Glomeribacter gigasporarum" is a gram-negative β-proteobacteria. The bacterium is rod-shaped, and has a obligate endosymbiotic relationship with the arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungi Gigaspora margarita. Sequencing of the16S rRNA gene places Ca. "G. gigasporarum" within the Burkholderia genus. Ca. "G. gigasporarum is unculturable as of yet, but can stay alive in enrichment for up to 4 weeks. The candidate bacteria is considered "the smallest beta-proteobacterium" with a genome size of 1.4 Mb. The chromosome is 750 kb long and a plasmid is 600 to 650 kb. The genome size was determined using gel-electrophoresis.
References
- ↑ Oakeson, KF; Gil, R; Clayton, AL; Dunn, DM; von Niederhausern, AC; Hamil, C; Aoyagi, A; Duval, B; Baca, A; Silva, FJ; Vallier, A; Jackson, DG; Latorre, A; Weiss, RB; Heddi, A; Moya, A; Dale, C (Jan 2014). "Genome degeneration and adaptation in a nascent stage of symbiosis". Genome Biology and Evolution. 6 (1): 76–93. doi:10.1093/gbe/evt210. PMC 3914690 . PMID 24407854.
- ↑ Novakova, Eva; Hypsa, Vaclav (April 2007). "A new Sodalis lineage from bloodsucking fly Craterina melbae (Diptera, Hippoboscoidea) originated independently of the tsetse flies symbiont Sodalis glossinidius". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 269 (1): 131–135. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00620.x . PMID 17227456.
- ↑ Kaiwa, Nahomi; Hosokawa, Takahiro; Kikuchi, Yoshitomo; Nikoh, Naruo; Meng, Xian Ying; Kimura, Nobutada; Ito, Motomi; Fukatsu, Takema (2010-06-01). "Primary Gut Symbiont and Secondary, Sodalis-Allied Symbiont of the Scutellerid Stinkbug Cantao ocellatus". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 76 (11): 3486–3494. Bibcode:2010ApEnM..76.3486K. doi:10.1128/AEM.00421-10. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 2876435 . PMID 20400564.
- ↑ Fukatsu, Takema; Koga, Ryuichi; Smith, Wendy A.; Tanaka, Kohjiiro; Nikoh, Naruo; Sasaki-Fukatsu, Kayoko; Yoshizawa, Kazunori; Dale, Colin; Clayton, Dale H. (2007-10-15). "Bacterial Endosymbiont of the Slender Pigeon Louse, Columbicola columbae, Allied to Endosymbionts of Grain Weevils and Tsetse Flies". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 73 (20): 6660–6668. Bibcode:2007ApEnM..73.6660F. doi:10.1128/AEM.01131-07. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 2075037 . PMID 17766458.
- ↑ Boyd, Bret M.; Allen, Julie M.; Koga, Ryuichi; Fukatsu, Takema; Sweet, Andrew D.; Johnson, Kevin P.; Reed, David L. (2016-06-01). "Two Bacterial Genera, Sodalis and Rickettsia, Associated with the Seal Louse Proechinophthirus fluctus (Phthiraptera: Anoplura)". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 82 (11): 3185–3197. Bibcode:2016ApEnM..82.3185B. doi:10.1128/AEM.00282-16. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 4959230 . PMID 26994086.
- ↑ Chrudimský, Tomáš; Husník, Filip; Nováková, Eva; Hypša, Václav (2012-07-17). "Candidatus Sodalis melophagi sp. nov.: Phylogenetically Independent Comparative Model to the Tsetse Fly Symbiont Sodalis glossinidius". PLOS ONE. 7 (7): e40354. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...740354C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040354 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3398932 . PMID 22815743.
- ↑ Heddi, A.; Grenier, A.-M.; Khatchadourian, C.; Charles, H.; Nardon, P. (1999-06-08). "Four intracellular genomes direct weevil biology: Nuclear, mitochondrial, principal endosymbiont, and Wolbachia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 96 (12): 6814–6819. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.6814H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.12.6814 . ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 21998 . PMID 10359795.
- ↑ Dale, C.; Maudlin, I. (1 January 1999). "Sodalis gen. nov. and Sodalis glossinidius sp. nov., a microaerophilic secondary endosymbiont of the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 49 (1): 267–275. doi: 10.1099/00207713-49-1-267 . PMID 10028272.
- ↑ De Vooght, Linda; Caljon, Guy; De Ridder, Karin; Van Den Abbeele, Jan (2014-11-07). "Delivery of a functional anti-trypanosome Nanobody in different tsetse fly tissues via a bacterial symbiont, Sodalis glossinidius". Microbial Cell Factories. 13: 156. doi: 10.1186/s12934-014-0156-6 . ISSN 1475-2859. PMC 4230353 . PMID 25376234.
- ↑ Goodhead, Ian; Blow, Frances; Brownridge, Philip; Hughes, Margaret; Kenny, John; Krishna, Ritesh; McLean, Lynn; Pongchaikul, Pisut; Beynon, Rob; Darby, Alistair C. (2020). "Large-scale and significant expression from pseudogenes in Sodalis glossinidius – a facultative bacterial endosymbiont". Microbial Genomics. 6 (1): e000285. doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000285. PMC 7067036 . PMID 31922467.
- ↑ Weiss, Brian L.; Mouchotte, Rosa; Rio, Rita V. M.; Wu, Yi-neng; Wu, Zheyang; Heddi, Abdelaziz; Aksoy, Serap (2006-11-01). "Interspecific Transfer of Bacterial Endosymbionts between Tsetse Fly Species: Infection Establishment and Effect on Host Fitness". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (11): 7013–7021. Bibcode:2006ApEnM..72.7013W. doi:10.1128/AEM.01507-06. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 1636136 . PMID 16950907.
- ↑ Chari, Abhishek; Oakeson, Kelly F.; Enomoto, Shinichiro; Jackson, D. Grant; Fisher, Mark A.; Dale, Colin (2015-05-01). "Phenotypic characterization of Sodalis praecaptivus sp. nov., a close non-insect-associated member of the Sodalis-allied lineage of insect endosymbionts". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 65 (Pt_5): 1400–1405. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.000091. ISSN 1466-5026. PMC 4635462 . PMID 25782768.
- ↑ Tláskal, Vojtěch; Pylro, Victor Satler; Žifčáková, Lucia; Baldrian, Petr (2021-06-11). "Ecological Divergence Within the Enterobacterial Genus Sodalis: From Insect Symbionts to Inhabitants of Decomposing Deadwood". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: 668644. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.668644 . ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 8226273 . PMID 34177846. S2CID 235397197.
- ↑ Tláskal, Vojtěch; Brabcová, Vendula; Větrovský, Tomáš; Jomura, Mayuko; López-Mondéjar, Rubén; Oliveira Monteiro, Lummy Maria; Saraiva, João Pedro; Human, Zander Rainier; Cajthaml, Tomáš; Nunes da Rocha, Ulisses; Baldrian, Petr (2021-02-23). Faust, Karoline (ed.). Yahya Kooch, Maraike Probst. "Complementary Roles of Wood-Inhabiting Fungi and Bacteria Facilitate Deadwood Decomposition". mSystems. 6 (1). doi:10.1128/mSystems.01078-20. ISSN 2379-5077. PMC 7901482 . PMID 33436515.