Adoption in ancient Rome

Last updated
Relief depicting imperial succession through adoption: Hadrian (right) adopted Antoninus Pius (center left), who in turn adopted the 17-year-old Marcus Aurelius (left) and the 8-year-old Lucius Verus; the head over Hadrian's left shoulder may represent the guardian genius of Aelius Verus, Lucius's late father Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, small Lucius Verus and Hadrian, a scene of a cycle "Adoption" of the Parthian frieze from Ephesus, the Parthian Monument reliefs, post 169 AD, Ephesos Museum Vienna, Austria (20434833803).jpg
Relief depicting imperial succession through adoption: Hadrian (right) adopted Antoninus Pius (center left), who in turn adopted the 17-year-old Marcus Aurelius (left) and the 8-year-old Lucius Verus; the head over Hadrian’s left shoulder may represent the guardian genius of Aelius Verus, Lucius's late father

Adoption in ancient Rome was primarily a legal procedure for transferring paternal power (potestas) to ensure succession in the male line within Roman patriarchal society. The Latin word adoptio refers broadly to "adoption", which was of two kinds: the transferral of potestas over a free person from one head of household to another; and adrogatio, when the adoptee had been acting sui iuris as a legal adult but assumed the status of unemancipated son for purposes of inheritance. Adoptio was a longstanding part of Roman family law pertaining to paternal responsibilities such as perpetuating the value of the family estate and ancestral rites (sacra), which were concerns of the Roman property-owning classes and cultural elite. During the Principate, adoption became a way to ensure imperial succession.

Contents

In contrast to modern adoption, Roman adoptio was neither designed nor intended to build emotionally satisfying families and support childrearing. [1] Among all social classes, childless couples or those who wanted to expand the size of their families instead might foster children. Evidence is meager for the adoptio of young children for purposes other than securing a male heir, and probably would have been employed mostly by former slaves legitimating the status of their own children born into slavery or outside a legally valid marriage.

Roman women could own, inherit, and control property as citizens, and therefore could exercise prerogatives of the paterfamilias pertaining to ownership and inheritance. [2] They played an increasingly significant role in succession and the inheritance of property from the 2nd century BC through the 2nd century AD, [3] but as an instrument for transferring paternal potestas, adoption was mainly a male-gendered practice. [4]

A family genius depicted as a paterfamilias (1st century) Genio romano de Ponte Punide (M.A.N. 1928-60-1) 01.jpg
A family genius depicted as a paterfamilias (1st century)

Formal adoption was practiced primarily for financial, social, and political purposes among the property-owning classes. Free working people for whom these interests were minimal had little need of the cumbersome legal procedure and instead fostered if they wished to rear children. [5] For the Romans, kinship was "biologically based but not biologically determined", and procedures such as adoption and divorce gave them greater latitude to restructure their families [6] than was allowed in Christian Europe. [7] Cicero said that adoption was an accepted way to ensure the hereditas (transmission) of three aspects of Roman family continuity: the family name (nomen), wealth (pecunia), and religious rites (sacra). [8] Adoption was appropriate for a man who had no legitimate children, but if there were already legitimate heirs, adoption risked diluting their inheritance and the social status that came with it. [9] Romans tended to prefer small families of two or three children for this reason, though premodern rates of neonatal and childhood mortality, along with other factors, could be an unsought brake on family size that jeopardized the family line. In adopting an adult heir, the father "could see what he was getting". [10]

Adoption was carried out by the male who was head of his family, the paterfamilias , and his adopting did not make his wife a mother. [1] Nor was marriage required; an adult bachelor could adopt in order to pass along his family name and potestas, [11] as could a citizen eunuch (Latin spado). [12]

Adoptio had some commonalities with emancipatio, the procedure by which an adult son was released from paternal potestas – regardless of age, Roman men and women remained in effect legal minors as long as their father was alive unless emancipated. The father's relinquishing of potestas over the son in both cases took the form of a fictive sale, based on an archaic provision of the Twelve Tables (mid-5th century BC) that a son sold three times was thereafter released from his father's legal control. [13]

The adoptee

A close relative was preferred as the adoptee, and a paterfamilias might adopt a grandson, especially if the grandson's father was not in the line of succession. The grandson might be his daughter's son, or the pater might have removed the boy's father from succession by emancipating him [14] One common pattern in Roman adoption was for a woman's childless brother to adopt one of her sons. [15] [16] A brother or cousin on the father's side might relinquish potestas over a son to provide a childless man with an adoptive heir. [17] A pater who had no sons might adopt his daughter's husband to strengthen family lineage, but to avoid technical incest, he would first need to emancipate his daughter so that she was no longer legally a part of the family – the adoption would otherwise create a brother-sister relationship that Roman law regarded as consanguines, the same as blood ties. [18] Adoption of a stepson from the wife's previous marriage was another strategy, if the stepson had no children; after adoption, his offspring would enter the line as grandchildren of the adopting paterfamilias. [19]

The adoptee did not have to be a relative. Romans placed a high value on the social bonds of friendship (amicitia), [20] and a childless man might adopt a friend or friend's son. [21] Fostering was preferred to adopting children of "low" birth or unknown parentage, and in Roman Egypt it was unlawful to adopt a male foundling. [22]

The freedman adoptee

The adoptee acquired the social rank of the adoptive family, with some exceptions, and the paterfamilias generally transmitted his estate to an adoptee of his own rank. [23] Most often adoption would have been a lateral move or a modest boost to the adoptee's standing and wealth, but a freedman could also be adopted. A slave might even be simultaneously manumitted and adopted by his former master, who became both his patron (patronus) and his "father". In the early Republic, a freedman through adoption gained the same status as the freeborn citizen who freed him. [24] The adoption of a freedman placed his property under the control of his new paterfamilias; it no longer belonged to him, but it would return to him along with the rest of his inheritance. The choice of a freedman for adoption may have been motivated most often by gaining access to his resources rather than securing lineage. Later legislation that more closely regulated the varied statuses of liberti left the adoptee as a freedman who could not, for example, marry into the senatorial order. [25]

In the late Republican era, Publius Clodius Pulcher famously subverted the usual course of "adopting up", surrendering his patrician status and becoming a nominal plebeian in order to qualify for the office of tribune. [26] Plebeians had adopted patricians before, but the reasons are not always clear and were not always political. [27] Cicero criticized the adrogatio of Clodius as solely politically motivated, [8] and Clodius was emancipated immediately after he had achieved his aim. [28] Around the same time, a nominal adoption allowed Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, son of the consul of 57 BC, to take a place in the College of Augurs by getting around the rule against having two members from the same gens . The adoption seems to have been entirely fictional, since there is no evidence he ever made any use of the nomenclature of the Manlius Toquatus who adopted him. [29] Cicero's own patrician son-in-law, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, followed the path of Clodius in becoming a tribune by having himself adopted by a plebeian Cornelius. [29]

Augustan legislation that granted privileges to fathers with multiple children and placed penalties on the childless also prompted adoptions of convenience, which might result in rapid emancipations once they had served their purpose. [30]

Forms of adoption

Adrogatio

Adrogatio differed from adoptio in that the person adopted was already sui iuris ; another father did not have to surrender his potestas, [13] and rather than extirpating the adoptee's previous family line, the two family lines were merged. [31] An adrogated adoptee was likely to have inherited from the natural father whose death had left him sui iuris, allowing him to consolidate two patrimonies. [32]

The development of adrogatio as a form of adoption is bound up with an early procedure for making a will that required the approval of the comitia calata , an assembly of the Roman people. Upon the testator's death, the named heir was in effect adopted by the deceased. [33] The legislative act of adrogation was carried out by thirty magisterial lictors summoned by the Pontifex Maximus. [13] Because adoption law developed to support the particular institutions of Roman society, adrogatio could take place only in the city of Rome until the reign of Diocletian in the late third century. [34]

Adrogation of female adoptees became possible through imperial rescript in the Antonine era (AD 138–192), and under exceptional circumstances a woman could adopt in the same way. In one documented case from the 3rd century, a woman whose sons had died was permitted to adopt her stepson. Since a woman did not transfer paternal potestas, however, adoption accomplished little that could not be achieved through exercising her rights under inheritance law. [35]

Testamentary adoption

Cameo (1st century) depicting Augustus, Livia, and Nero as a child Glittica romana, augusto, livia e nerone, sardonice, I sec dc..JPG
Cameo (1st century) depicting Augustus, Livia, and Nero as a child

Testamentary adoption became more common during the late Republic. [36] Octavian, the future Augustus, was adopted in this way by his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar. [37] Although adoptio was a practice aimed at furthering the succession of male privileges, both men and women could in effect "adopt" by passing along their property in a will with the condition that the heir carry on the family name (condicio nominis ferendi). [23] The role of women in passing property along the family line became "increasingly important". [38] Technically, this was not adoption but the "institution of an heir." [23] The advantage of this arrangement was that the testator did not have to assume patriarchal responsibilities for the adoptee while he was alive but had assured the continuity of the family name, rites, and estate after his death; the testamentary adoptee did not surrender his own status as a pater as he would in adrogation but received the benefits of inheritance. [36]

Adoption was also the means by which married women could become part of their husband's family. From the late Republic through the Principate, most Roman women married sine manu, meaning that they remained part of their birth family and did not submit to their husband's potestas. Livia, the wife of Augustus, outlived him, and only upon his death did testamentary adoption make her a part of the Julian family. [39]

Legitimation

Illegitimacy does not appear to have carried much stigma in Roman society before the time of Constantine I, [40] as many forms of Roman marriage existed, some rather loosely defined, along with quasi-marital unions such as contubernium among slaves and monogamous concubinage (concubinatus). [41] Birth outside marriage was primarily at issue in matters of inheritance but was not a clearly defined status with debilities in law, as a principle of customary international law (ius gentium) was that a child took its status from the mother. [42] A freedwoman whose male partner remained enslaved might find it advantageous to assert that her child was fatherless and not conceived during her own servitude, so as to ensure the child's freeborn status. [43] It was unusual for freeborn persons to legitimate a child born outside a legally valid marriage, and typically a man would not adopt his illegitimate child unless he had no other heirs. [36] The adoptee could be ingenuus (freeborn) or a freedman, and might be a child resulting from concubinatus, [44] though children were not especially desired from these unions. [45]

Provisions for retroactive legitimation became more capacious in late antiquity as family law was adapted during the Christianization of the Roman Empire, in particular under Constantine and Justinian. [46] [47] [48]

In the Classical period, legitimation might have been more common among former slaves. Since slaves lacked personhood under Roman law, they could neither contract a valid marriage nor institute an heir by means of a will. However, the quasi-marital union of contubernium was available to heterosexual slave couples with the owner's approval, and expressed an intent to marry if both parties gained rights of marriage and succession upon manumission. Because a male slave did not possess the standing to assert patriarchal potestas, the child of an enslaved father was spurius, one whose father could not be legally identified as such—that is, illegitimate. [47] Since the child's status was determined by the mother's, if a woman was manumitted before her partner and conceived a child with him after that, the child was spurius but freeborn; unlike freeborn children from a legal marriage, however, the child was born sui iuris , emancipated from the potestas of an adult male. If the father was later manumitted through a procedure that granted him full citizenship, he could legitimate his child through adrogatio. [46] [49]

Imperial succession

Many Roman emperors came to power through adoption, either because their predecessors had no natural sons, or simply to ensure a smooth transition for the most capable candidate.

The Julio-Claudian dynasty

Julio Claudian Family Tree JulioClaudian.svg
Julio Claudian Family Tree

Augustus, as he was known after he became the first Roman emperor, was adopted into the gens Julia in the will of his great uncle, Julius Caesar. He inherited Caesar's money, name, and auctoritas .

As Augustus's central role in the Principate solidified, it became increasingly important for him to designate an heir. He first adopted his daughter Julia's three sons by Marcus Agrippa, renaming them Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, and Agrippa Caesar. After the former two died young and the latter was exiled, Augustus adopted his stepson, Tiberius Claudius Nero, on the condition that he adopt his own nephew, Germanicus (who was also Augustus's great nephew by blood). Tiberius succeeded Augustus, and after Tiberius's death, Germanicus's son Caligula became emperor. [50]

Claudius adopted his stepson Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar and succeeded Claudius as the emperor, Nero.

The adoptive emperors

Denarius issued under Hadrian; the reverse shows him joining hands with Trajan with the legend ADOPTIO HADRIANUS RIC II 3c-761923.jpg
Denarius issued under Hadrian; the reverse shows him joining hands with Trajan with the legend ADOPTIO

The Nerva-Antonine dynasty was also united by a series of adoptions. Nerva adopted the popular military leader Trajan. Trajan in turn took Publius Aelius Hadrianus as his protégé and, although the legitimacy of the process is debatable, Hadrian claimed to have been adopted and took the name Caesar Traianus Hadrianus when he became emperor.

Hadrian adopted Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who changed his name to Lucius Aelius Caesar but predeceased Hadrian. Hadrian then adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, on condition that Antoninus in turn adopt both the natural son of the late Lucius Aelius and a promising young nephew of his wife. They ruled as Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius respectively.

Niccolò Machiavelli described them as The Five Good Emperors and attributed their success to having been chosen for the role:

From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced. [51]

This run of adoptive emperors came to an end when Marcus Aurelius named his biological son, Commodus, as his heir.

Adoption never became the official method of designating a successor, in part because Roman identity was based on citizenship with a visceral rejection of hereditary kingship. During the Principate, so called from Augustus's styling of himself as princeps (first among equals, in the manner of the princeps senatus ), emperors consolidated their power by making use of the institutions of Republican Rome rather than overthrowing them outright. Augustus's early intentions seem to have been to apprentice and promote a successor on the basis of merit, but his longevity instead created an apparatus of centralized power from which his status as a private citizen could no longer be extricated. His fashioning of himself as "father of his country" enabled the transferral of his power over the Roman people in the same way that a paterfamilias of a family estate was bound to transfer his potestas whether or not the available successor was fully meritorious. A major transition in the means of imperial succession marks the periodization of Roman Imperial history into the Dominate, when Diocletian replaced adoption with the consortium imperii , designation of an heir by appointing him partner in imperium .

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Augustus</span> First Roman emperor from 27 BC to AD 14

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, also known as Octavian, was the founder of the Roman Empire. He reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult, as well as an era of imperial peace in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The Principate system of government was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agrippina the Elder</span> Mother of Caligula, Julio-Claudian dynasty

(Vipsania) Agrippina the Elder was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Augustus' daughter, Julia the Elder. Her brothers Lucius and Gaius Caesar were the adoptive sons of Augustus, and were his heirs until their deaths in AD 2 and 4, respectively. Following their deaths, her second cousin Germanicus was made the adoptive son of Tiberius, Augustus' stepson, as part of the succession scheme in the adoptions of AD 4. As a result of the adoption, Agrippina was wed to Germanicus in order to bring him closer to the Julian family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julio-Claudian dynasty</span> Roman imperial dynasty

The Julio-Claudian dynasty comprised the first five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julio-Claudian family tree</span> Family tree

Around the start of the Common Era, the family trees of the gens Julia and the gens Claudia became intertwined into the Julio-Claudian family tree as a result of marriages and adoptions.

Publius Cornelius Dolabella was a Roman politician and general under the dictator Julius Caesar. He was by far the most important of the patrician Cornelii Dolabellae but he arranged for himself to be adopted into the plebeian Cornelii Lentuli so that he could become a plebeian tribune. He married Cicero's daughter, Tullia, although he frequently engaged in extramarital affairs. Throughout his life he was an extreme profligate, something that Plutarch wrote reflected ill upon his patron Julius Caesar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agrippa Postumus</span> Youngest son of Marcus Agrippa and Julia the Elder (12 BC – AD 14)

Marcus Agrippa Postumus, later named Agrippa Julius Caesar, was a grandson of Roman Emperor Augustus. He was the youngest child of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. Augustus initially considered Postumus as a potential successor and formally adopted him as his heir, before banishing Postumus from Rome in AD 6 on account of his ferocia. In effect, though not in law, the action cancelled his adoption and virtually assured Tiberius' emplacement as Augustus' sole heir. Postumus was ultimately executed by his own guards shortly after Augustus' death in AD 14.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaius Caesar</span> Grandson and heir of Roman emperor Augustus

Gaius Caesar was a grandson and heir to the throne of Roman emperor Augustus, alongside his younger brother Lucius Caesar. Although he was born to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, Augustus' only daughter, Gaius and Lucius were raised by their grandfather as his adopted sons and joint-heirs. He experienced an accelerated political career befitting a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, with the Roman Senate allowing him to advance his career without first holding a quaestorship or praetorship, offices that ordinary senators were required to hold as part of the cursus honorum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman emperor</span> Ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period

The Roman emperor was the ruler and monarchical head of state of the Roman Empire, starting with the granting of the title augustus to Octavian in 27 BC. The term "emperor" is a modern convention, and did not exist as such during the Empire. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title augustus and later basileus. Another title used was imperator, originally a military honorific, and caesar, originally a surname. Early emperors also used the title princeps alongside other Republican titles, notably consul and pontifex maximus.

The pater familias, also written as paterfamilias, was the head of a Roman family. The pater familias was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his extended family. The term is Latin for "father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate". The form is archaic in Latin, preserving the old genitive ending in -ās, whereas in classical Latin the normal first declension genitive singular ending was -ae. The pater familias always had to be a Roman citizen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in ancient Rome</span>

Freeborn women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office. Because of their limited public role, women are named less frequently than men by Roman historians. But while Roman women held no direct political power, those from wealthy or powerful families could and did exert influence through private negotiations. Exceptional women who left an undeniable mark on history include Lucretia and Claudia Quinta, whose stories took on mythic significance; fierce Republican-era women such as Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, and Fulvia, who commanded an army and issued coins bearing her image; women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, most prominently Livia and Agrippina the Younger, who contributed to the formation of Imperial mores; and the empress Helena, a driving force in promoting Christianity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drusus Julius Caesar</span> Son of Emperor Tiberius and Roman politician (14 BC – 23 AD)

Drusus Julius Caesar, also called Drusus the Younger, was the son of Emperor Tiberius, and heir to the Roman Empire following the death of his adoptive brother Germanicus in AD 19.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drusus Caesar</span> Adopted grandson and heir of Roman emperor Tiberius

Drusus Caesar was the adopted grandson and heir of the Roman emperor Tiberius, alongside his brother Nero. Born into the prominent Julio-Claudian dynasty, Drusus was the son of Tiberius' general and heir, Germanicus. After the deaths of his father and of Tiberius' son, Drusus the Younger, Drusus and his brother Nero Caesar were adopted together by Tiberius in September AD 23. As a result of being heirs of the emperor, he and his brother enjoyed accelerated political careers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nero Julius Caesar</span> Adopted grandson and heir of the Roman emperor Tiberius

Nero Julius Caesar was the adopted grandson and heir of the Roman emperor Tiberius, alongside his brother Drusus. Born into the prominent Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero was the son of Tiberius' general and heir, Germanicus. After the deaths of his father and of Tiberius' son, Drusus the Younger, Nero and his brother Drusus were adopted together by Tiberius in September AD 23. As a result of being heirs of the emperor, he and his brother enjoyed accelerated political careers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lucius Caesar</span> Grandson of emperor Augustus (17 BC – 2 AD)

Lucius Caesar was a grandson of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. The son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, Augustus' only daughter, Lucius was adopted by his grandfather along with his older brother, Gaius Caesar. As the emperor's adopted sons and joint-heirs to the Roman Empire, Lucius and Gaius had promising political and military careers. However, Lucius died of a sudden illness on 20 August 2 AD, in Massilia, Gaul, while traveling to meet the Roman army in Hispania. His brother Gaius also died at a relatively young age on 21 February 4 AD. The untimely loss of both heirs compelled Augustus to redraw the line of succession by adopting Lucius' younger brother, Agrippa Postumus as well as his stepson, Tiberius on 26 June 4 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marriage in ancient Rome</span> Social institution in the classical Roman civilization

Marriage in ancient Rome was a fundamental institution of society and was used by Romans primarily as a tool for interfamilial alliances. The institution of Roman marriage was a practice of marital monogamy: Roman citizens could have only one spouse at a time in marriage but were allowed to divorce and remarry. This form of prescriptively monogamous marriage that co-existed with male resource polygyny in Greco-Roman civilization may have arisen from the relative egalitarianism of democratic and republican city-states. Early Christianity embraced this ideal of monogamous marriage by adding its own teaching of sexual monogamy, and perpetrated it worldwide and became as an essential element in many later Western cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in ancient Rome</span> Treatment of people as property in ancient Rome and its empire

Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Unskilled or low-skill slaves labored in the fields, mines, and mills with few opportunities for advancement and little chance of freedom. Skilled and educated slaves—including artisans, chefs, domestic staff and personal attendants, entertainers, business managers, accountants and bankers, educators at all levels, secretaries and librarians, civil servants, and physicians—occupied a more privileged tier of servitude and could hope to obtain freedom through one of several well-defined paths with protections under the law. The possibility of manumission and subsequent citizenship was a distinguishing feature of Rome's system of slavery, resulting in a significant and influential number of freedpersons in Roman society.

<i>Manus</i> marriage Type of marriage in ancient Rome

Manus was an Ancient Roman type of marriage, of which there were two forms: cum manu and sine manu. In a cum manu marriage, the wife was placed under the legal control of the husband. In a sine manu marriage, the wife remained under the legal control of her father.

<i>Augustus</i> (title) Ancient Roman title

Augustus was the main title of the Roman emperors during Antiquity. It was given as both name and title to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in 27 BC, marking his accession as Rome's first emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by all emperors thereafter. The feminine form Augusta was used for Roman empresses and other female members of the imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as titles for major and minor Roman deities of the Empire associated the imperial system and family with traditional Roman virtues and the divine will and may be considered a feature of the Roman imperial cult.

Susan Treggiari is an English scholar of Ancient Rome, emeritus professor of Stanford University and retired member of the Faculty of Classics at the University of Oxford. Her specialist areas of study are the family and marriage in ancient Rome, Cicero and the late Roman Republic.

<i>Contubernium</i> Quasi-marital relationship involving slaves

In ancient Rome, contubernium was a quasi-marital relationship between two slaves or between a slave (servus) and a free citizen who was usually a former slave or the child of a former slave. A slave involved in such a relationship was called contubernalis, the basic and general meaning of which was "companion".

References

  1. 1 2 Corbier 1991, p. 63.
  2. ↑ Saller 1999, pp. 185, 187–189.
  3. ↑ Lindsay 2011, pp. 347, 350, 354.
  4. ↑ Gardner 1986, p. 8.
  5. ↑ Rawson 1986, p. 196.
  6. ↑ Saller 1994, p. 43.
  7. ↑ Corbier 1991, p. 47.
  8. 1 2 Corbier 1991, p. 63, citing Cicero, De domo sua 35.
  9. ↑ Saller 1994, p. 123, citing Ulpian, Digest 1.7.17.3.
  10. ↑ Rawson 1986, pp. 8, 12.
  11. ↑ Gardner 1998, pp. 143–144, citing Paulus, Digest 1.7.30.
  12. ↑ Gardner 1998, p. 144, citing Gaius, Institutiones 1.103.
  13. 1 2 3 Gardner 1986, p. 6.
  14. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 67–68.
  15. ↑ Treggiari 2019, p. 147.
  16. ↑ Lindsay 2009, pp. 161–164.
  17. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 68.
  18. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 69.
  19. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 71–72.
  20. ↑ Corbier 1991, p. 73.
  21. ↑ Lindsay 2009, p. 156.
  22. ↑ Rawson 1986, pp. 196, 200 n. 51, citing Gnomon of the Idios Logos 41, 107.
  23. 1 2 3 Corbier 1991, p. 64.
  24. ↑ Gardner 1989, pp. 252 et passim.
  25. ↑ Lindsay 2009, p. 134.
  26. ↑ Tatum 1999, pp. 280–282.
  27. ↑ Lindsay 2009, p. 170.
  28. ↑ Lindsay 2009, p. 171.
  29. 1 2 Lindsay 2009, p. 172.
  30. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 73–74.
  31. ↑ Berger 1953, p. 250, s.v. adoptio.
  32. ↑ Corbier 1991, pp. 75.
  33. ↑ Gardner 1986, p. 164.
  34. ↑ Gardner 1989, p. 237.
  35. ↑ Gardner 1986, p. 144.
  36. 1 2 3 Lindsay 2011, p. 355.
  37. ↑ Corbier 1991, p. 70.
  38. ↑ Lindsay 2011, p. 354.
  39. ↑ Saller 1994, p. 76, citing Tacitus, Annales 6.51.
  40. ↑ Nowak 2015, p. 216.
  41. ↑ Treggiari 1981a, p. 58 n. 42, citing Cicero, De Oratore 1.183; Quintilian, Declamationes 247 (Ritter 11.15); Digest 23.2.24 (Modestinus), 24.1.32.13 (Ulpian); 39.5.31 pr. (Papinian).
  42. ↑ Nowak 2015, pp. 215–216.
  43. ↑ Nowak 2015, pp. 211.
  44. ↑ Lindsay 2011, p. 355, citing Gaius, Institutiones 1.102 and Digest 1.7.15.2–3 (Ulpian).
  45. ↑ Rawson 1974, p. 291 n. 44.
  46. 1 2 Buckland 1908, pp. 77 (n. 3), 79.
  47. 1 2 Berger 1953, p. 473 on filius iustus (= filius legitimus); p. 714 on spurius.
  48. ↑ Evans-Grubbs 1993, pp. 128, 149.
  49. ↑ Evans-Grubbs 1993, p. 128.
  50. ↑ Levick 1966, pp. 227–244.
  51. ↑ Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10.

Bibliography


This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.