List of unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States

For a list of all presidential candidates, see List of United States presidential candidates.

Popular vote of political parties in United States presidential elections

Since the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, there have been 52 unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States. ^{[lower-alpha 1]} Additionally, since 1796, eight third party or independent candidates have won at least ten percent of the popular or electoral vote, but all failed to win the presidency.

Since the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment prior to the 1804 presidential election, the winner of any given presidential election is the candidate that receives the majority of the electoral vote. ^{[lower-alpha 2]} Under the rules established by the Twelfth Amendment, if no individual wins a majority of the electoral vote, then the United States House of Representatives holds a contingent election to determine the election winner; contingent elections have decided the winners of two presidential elections. Since 1824, the national popular vote has been recorded, ^[1] but the national popular vote does not determine the winner of the presidential election. There have been five presidential elections in which the winner did not win a majority or a plurality of the popular vote.

The United States has had a two-party system for much of its history, and the major parties of the two-party system have dominated presidential elections for most of U.S. history. ^[2] The two current major parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. At various points prior to the American Civil War, the Federalist Party, the Democratic-Republican Party, the National Republican Party, and the Whig Party were major parties. ^[2] These six parties have nominated candidates in the vast majority of presidential elections, but six presidential elections deviate from the normal pattern of two major party candidates. There were no major party candidates for president in the presidential election of 1789 and the presidential election of 1792, ^{[lower-alpha 3]} both of which were won by George Washington. ^[4] In the 1812 presidential election, DeWitt Clinton served as the de facto Federalist nominee even though he was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party; Clinton was defeated by Democratic-Republican President James Madison. ^[5] In the presidential election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe of the Democratic-Republican Party effectively ran unopposed. ^{[lower-alpha 4]} In the 1824 presidential election, four Democratic-Republicans competed in multiple states in the general election as the party was unable to agree on a single nominee. ^[7] Similarly, in the presidential election of 1836, the Whig Party did not unify around a single candidate and two different Whig candidates competed in multiple states in the general election. ^[8]

Several former, incumbent, or future presidents have unsuccessfully sought the presidency. Several individuals have unsuccessfully sought the presidency as the candidate of a major party multiple times; only Henry Clay and William Jennings Bryan have done so thrice. ^{[lower-alpha 5]} Seven different third parties have nominated a candidate who won at least ten percent of the electoral vote or at least ten percent of the popular vote in a single election, and who was not nominated by a major party in that election. Two of those candidates, Theodore Roosevelt and John C. Breckinridge, finished with the second-highest share of the electoral vote. Since 1796, just one independent candidate, Ross Perot, has accrued more than ten percent of the popular or electoral vote. ^[10] One third-party candidate, Horace Greeley of the Liberal Republican Party, was nominated by a major party only after being nominated by a third party. ^{[11] [lower-alpha 6]}

List of unsuccessful major party candidates

• * indicates that the candidate served as the president of the United States at some other point in their career
• † indicates that the candidate won a majority or plurality of the popular vote
• ‡ indicates that the candidate won a plurality of the electoral vote
• PV% indicates the share of the popular vote won by that candidate
• EV% indicates the share of the electoral vote won by that candidate

Democratic-Republican         Federalist         National Republican         Whig         Liberal Republican         Democratic         Republican
Election	Candidate [1] [10]						Vote [1] [10]		Running mate	Defeated by
	Candidate (Birth–death)		Party		Office at time of election [lower-alpha 7]	Home state [lower-alpha 8]	PV%	EV% [lower-alpha 9]
1796 [lower-alpha 10]	Thomas Jefferson* (1743–1826) [14]		Democratic-Republican		Fmr. Secretary of State	VA	NR	49.3%	Aaron Burr [lower-alpha 10]	John Adams
1800 [lower-alpha 11]	John Adams* (1735–1826) [15]		Federalist		President	MA	NR	47.1%	Charles C. Pinckney [lower-alpha 12]	Thomas Jefferson
1804	Charles C. Pinckney (1746–1825) [17]		Federalist		Fmr. Ambassador	SC	NR	8%	Rufus King
1808							NR	26.7%		James Madison
1812	DeWitt Clinton (1769–1828) [18]		Democratic-Republican and Federalist [lower-alpha 13]		Lieutenant Governor and Mayor [lower-alpha 14]	NY	NR	40.8%	Jared Ingersoll
1816 [lower-alpha 15]	Rufus King (1755–1827) [21]		Federalist		Senator	NY	NR	15.4%	John E. Howard	James Monroe
1824	Andrew Jackson* (1767–1845) [22]		Democratic-Republican [lower-alpha 16]		Major General	TN	41.4%†	37.9%‡	John C. Calhoun [lower-alpha 17]	John Quincy Adams
	William H. Crawford (1772–1834) [23]				Secretary of the Treasury	GA	11.2%	15.7%	Nathaniel Macon [lower-alpha 17]
	Henry Clay (1777–1852) [24]				Speaker of the House	KY	13.0%	14.2%	Nathan Sanford [lower-alpha 17]
1828	John Quincy Adams* (1767–1848) [25]		National Republican		President	MA	43.7%	31.8%	Richard Rush	Andrew Jackson
1832	Henry Clay (1777–1852) [24]		National Republican		Senator	KY	36.7%	17.1%	John Sergeant
1836	William Henry Harrison* (1773–1841) [26]		Whig [lower-alpha 18]		Fmr. Senator	OH	36.6%	24.8%	Francis Granger [lower-alpha 19]	Martin Van Buren
	Hugh Lawson White (1773–1840) [29]				Senator	TN	9.7%	8.8%	John Tyler [lower-alpha 19]
1840	Martin Van Buren* (1782–1862) [30]		Democratic		President	NY	46.9%	20.4%	Richard M. Johnson [lower-alpha 20]	William Henry Harrison
1844	Henry Clay (1777–1852) [24]		Whig		Fmr. Senator	KY	48.1%	38.2%	Theodore Frelinghuysen	James K. Polk
1848	Lewis Cass (1782–1866) [33]		Democratic		Fmr. Senator	MI	42.5%	43.8%	William O. Butler	Zachary Taylor
1852	Winfield Scott (1786–1866) [34]		Whig		Major General	NJ	43.9%	14.2%	William A. Graham	Franklin Pierce
1856	John C. Frémont (1813–1890) [35]		Republican [lower-alpha 21]		Colonel [42]	CA	33.1%	38.5%	William L. Dayton	James Buchanan
1860	Stephen A. Douglas (1813–1861) [43]		Democratic [lower-alpha 22]		Senator	IL	29.5%	4%	Herschel V. Johnson	Abraham Lincoln
1864	George B. McClellan (1826–1885) [49]		Democratic		Major General	NJ	45.0%	9%	George H. Pendleton
1868	Horatio Seymour (1810–1886) [50]		Democratic		Fmr. Governor	NY	47.3%	27.2%	Francis Preston Blair Jr.	Ulysses S. Grant
1872	Horace Greeley (1811–1872) [51]		Liberal Republican and Democratic [lower-alpha 23]		Fmr. Representative [lower-alpha 24]	NY	43.8%	18.8% [lower-alpha 25]	Benjamin Gratz Brown
1876	Samuel J. Tilden (1814–1886) [55]		Democratic		Governor	NY	50.9%†	49.9%	Thomas A. Hendricks	Rutherford B. Hayes
1880	Winfield Scott Hancock (1824–1886) [56]		Democratic		Major General	PA	48.2%	42%	William H. English	James A. Garfield
1884	James G. Blaine (1830–1893) [57]		Republican		Fmr. Secretary of State	ME	48.3%	45.4%	John A. Logan	Grover Cleveland
1888	Grover Cleveland* (1837–1908) [58]		Democratic		President	NY	48.7%†	41.9%	Allen G. Thurman	Benjamin Harrison
1892	Benjamin Harrison* (1833–1901) [59]		Republican		President	IN	43.0%	32.7%	Whitelaw Reid	Grover Cleveland
1896	William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925) [60]		Democratic [lower-alpha 26]		Fmr. Representative	NE	46.7%	39.4%	Arthur Sewall [lower-alpha 26]	William McKinley
1900							45.5%	34.7%	Adlai Stevenson I
1904	Alton B. Parker (1852–1926) [62]		Democratic		Fmr. state judge [lower-alpha 27]	NY	37.6%	29.4%	Henry G. Davis	Theodore Roosevelt
1908	William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925) [60]		Democratic		Fmr. Representative	NE	43.0%	33.5%	John W. Kern	William Howard Taft
1912 [lower-alpha 28]	William Howard Taft* (1857–1930) [67]		Republican		President	OH	23.2%	1.5%	James S. Sherman [lower-alpha 29]	Woodrow Wilson
1916	Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948) [69]		Republican		Fmr. Associate Justice	NY	46.1%	47.8%	Charles W. Fairbanks
1920	James M. Cox (1870–1957) [70]		Democratic		Governor	OH	34.1%	23.9%	Franklin D. Roosevelt	Warren G. Harding
1924	John W. Davis (1873–1955) [71]		Democratic		Fmr. Ambassador	WV	28.8%	25.6%	Charles W. Bryan	Calvin Coolidge
1928	Al Smith (1873–1944) [72]		Democratic		Governor	NY	40.8%	16.4%	Joseph T. Robinson	Herbert Hoover
1932	Herbert Hoover* (1874–1964) [73]		Republican		President	CA	39.7%	11.1%	Charles Curtis	Franklin D. Roosevelt
1936	Alf Landon (1887–1987) [74]		Republican		Governor	KS	36.5%	1.5%	Frank Knox
1940	Wendell Willkie (1892–1944) [75]		Republican		None [lower-alpha 30]	NY	44.8%	15.4%	Charles L. McNary
1944	Thomas E. Dewey (1902–1971) [76]		Republican		Governor	NY	45.9%	18.6%	John W. Bricker
1948							45.1%	35.6%	Earl Warren	Harry S. Truman
1952	Adlai Stevenson II (1900–1965) [77]		Democratic		Governor	IL	44.3%	16.8%	John Sparkman	Dwight D. Eisenhower
1956					Fmr. Governor		42.0%	13.7%	Estes Kefauver
1960	Richard Nixon* (1913–1994) [78]		Republican		Vice President	CA	49.6%	40.8%	Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.	John F. Kennedy
1964	Barry Goldwater (1909–1998) [79]		Republican		Senator	AZ	38.5%	9.7%	William E. Miller	Lyndon B. Johnson
1968	Hubert Humphrey (1911–1978) [80]		Democratic		Vice President	MN	42.7%	35.5%	Edmund Muskie	Richard Nixon
1972	George McGovern (1922–2012) [81]		Democratic		Senator	SD	37.5%	3.2%	Sargent Shriver [lower-alpha 31]
1976	Gerald Ford* (1913–2006) [83]		Republican		President	MI	48.0%	44.6%	Bob Dole	Jimmy Carter
1980	Jimmy Carter* (born 1924) [84]		Democratic		President	GA	41.0%	9.1%	Walter Mondale	Ronald Reagan
1984	Walter Mondale (1928–2021) [85]		Democratic		Fmr. Vice President	MN	40.6%	2.4%	Geraldine Ferraro
1988	Michael Dukakis (born 1933) [86]		Democratic		Governor	MA	45.7%	20.6%	Lloyd Bentsen	George H. W. Bush
1992	George H. W. Bush* (1924–2018) [87]		Republican		President	TX	37.5%	31.2%	Dan Quayle	Bill Clinton
1996	Bob Dole (1923–2021) [88]		Republican		Fmr. Senator	KS	40.7%	29.6%	Jack Kemp
2000	Al Gore (born 1948) [89]		Democratic		Vice President	TN	48.4%†	49.4%	Joe Lieberman	George W. Bush
2004	John Kerry (born 1943) [90]		Democratic		Senator	MA	48.3%	46.7%	John Edwards
2008	John McCain (1936–2018) [91]		Republican		Senator	AZ	45.6%	32.2%	Sarah Palin	Barack Obama
2012	Mitt Romney (born 1947) [92]		Republican		Fmr. Governor	MA	47.2%	38.3%	Paul Ryan
2016	Hillary Clinton (born 1947) [93]		Democratic		Fmr. Secretary of State	NY	48.0%†	42.2%	Tim Kaine	Donald Trump
2020	Donald Trump* (born 1946) [94]		Republican		President	FL	46.8%	43.1%	Mike Pence	Joe Biden

List of unsuccessful major third-party and independent candidates

Further information: List of United States major third party and independent presidential tickets

These third-party and independent candidates won at least ten percent of the electoral vote ^[10] or at least ten percent of the popular vote. ^[95]

• * indicates that the candidate served as the president of the United States at some point in their career
• † indicates that the candidate finished with the second highest share of the popular vote
• ‡ indicates that the candidate finished with the second highest share of the electoral vote
• PV% indicates the share of the popular vote won by that candidate
• EV% indicates the share of the electoral vote won by that candidate

Free Soil         American         Southern Democratic         Constitutional Union         Progressive (1912)         Progressive (1924)         American Independent         Independent
Election	Candidate [1] [10]						Vote [1] [10]		Running mate
	Candidate (Birth–death)		Party		Office at time of election [lower-alpha 7]	Home state [lower-alpha 8]	PV%	EV%
1848	Martin Van Buren* (1782–1862) [30]		Free Soil		Fmr. President	NY	10.1%	0%	Charles F. Adams Sr.
1856	Millard Fillmore* (1800–1874) [96]		American [lower-alpha 21]		Fmr. President	NY	21.5%	2.7%	Andrew J. Donelson
1860	John C. Breckinridge (1821–1875) [97]		Southern Democratic [lower-alpha 22]		Vice President	KY	18.2%	23.8%‡	Joseph Lane
1860	John Bell (1796–1869) [98]		Constitutional Union		Fmr. Senator	TN	12.6%	12.9%	Edward Everett
1912 [lower-alpha 28]	Theodore Roosevelt* (1858–1919) [99]		Progressive [lower-alpha 32]		Fmr. President	NY	27.4%†	16.6%‡	Hiram Johnson
1924	Robert La Follette (1855–1925) [101]		Progressive [lower-alpha 32]		Senator	WI	16.6%	2.4%	Burton K. Wheeler
1968	George Wallace (1919–1998) [102]		American Independent		Fmr. Governor	AL	13.5%	8.6%	Curtis LeMay
1992	Ross Perot [lower-alpha 33] (1930–2019) [103]		Independent		None [lower-alpha 34]	TX	18.9%	0%	James Stockdale

See also

• List of presidents of the United States
• List of United States presidential candidates
• List of unsuccessful major party candidates for Vice President of the United States
• List of people who received an electoral vote in the United States Electoral College
• List of United States Electoral College results
• Lists of fictional presidents of the United States
• Alternate Presidents

Notes

1. There have been 59 unsuccessful major party candidacies by 52 individuals in 56 of the 59 presidential elections. This figure does not include individuals who were affiliated with a major party but were not the primary nominee of that party and only competed in a small fraction of the states that participated in the election.
2. Prior to the 1804 elections, each elector cast two electoral votes, an in each of the first four elections the individual with the most electoral votes became president.
3. Though Washington did not receive serious opposition in the 1792 election, the nascent Democratic-Republican Party attempted to defeat Vice President John Adams's bid for re-election. The Democratic-Republican candidate, George Clinton, finished with 50 electoral votes, but Adams won re-election with 77 electoral votes. ^[3]
4. The Federalist Party did not nominate a presidential candidate and essentially conceded the 1820 presidential election before it was held. Monroe did not face any opposition in the election, although one presidential elector, William Plumer, cast his vote for John Quincy Adams. ^[6]
5. Additionally, George Clinton, Aaron Burr, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney each received electoral votes for president in three elections that they did not win. However, each of those candidates was their party's actual or de facto vice presidential nominee in at least one of those elections. ^[9]
6. Other third parties, such as the Populist Party, have nominated individuals who had previously been nominated for president by a major party.
7. The most recent elective office, or senior appointive position, held by the candidate when the presidential election was held.
8. State of primary residence at the time of the election.
9. This column reflects the share of the total presidential electoral vote won by the losing candidate. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president. ^[12] For the elections of 1796 and 1800, the number in this column reflects the share of presidential electors who cast one of their two votes for Jefferson (in 1796) or Adams (in 1800).
10. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president. ^[10] The Democratic-Republicans may or may not have officially nominated Jefferson for president through a congressional nominating caucus, but Jefferson was widely regarded as the party's main presidential candidate in the 1796 election. The Democratic-Republicans did not select an official vice presidential candidate. Aaron Burr finished with the second-most electoral votes among individuals affiliated with the party. ^[13] Because Jefferson won more electoral votes than the second Federalist candidate, Thomas Pinckney, he was elected as vice president. ^[10]
11. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president. ^[10] Thomas Jefferson and the other main Democratic-Republican candidate, Aaron Burr, each won the votes of 73 presidential electors, more than either of the Federalist candidates. Because Jefferson and Burr tied in the electoral vote, the election was decided by a contingent election held in the House of Representatives; Jefferson was elected president and Burr became vice president. ^[10]
12. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president. ^[10] The Federalist congressional nominating caucus nominated a ticket of Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. Though the party did not officially nominate either candidate for president or vice president, most Federalists favored Adams for president and Pinckney for vice president. ^[16] Adams won 65 electoral votes and Pinckney won 64 electoral votes. ^[10]
13. Clinton was a Northern Democratic-Republican who challenged the incumbent Democratic-Republican president, James Madison, in the general election. ^[5] Clinton was nominated for president by a legislative caucus of New York Democratic-Republicans, and much of his support came from Democratic-Republicans dissatisfied with Madison's leadership in the War of 1812. The Federalist Party did not officially nominate Clinton, but most Federalist leaders tacitly supported Clinton's candidacy in hopes of defeating Madison. ^[19]
14. In 1812, Clinton simultaneously held the positions of Mayor of New York City and Lieutenant Governor of New York. He had also previously served in the United States Senate.
15. The Federalists did not nominate a ticket in 1816, though some Federalists were elected to serve as presidential electors. A majority of the Federalist electors cast their presidential vote for King and their vice presidential vote for Howard. ^[20]
16. The Democratic-Republican Party was unable to unite behind a single candidate in 1824. ^[7] Four Democratic-Republicans received electoral votes in the general election, and, as no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote, the election was decided in a contingent election held in the House of Representatives. John Quincy Adams won that contingent election. ^[10]
17. In the election 1824, no presidential candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for president, but John C. Calhoun won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president, and thus was elected vice president. Most presidential electors who voted for either Adams or Jackson for president voted for Calhoun for vice president. Similarly, most electors who cast their presidential vote for Clay cast their vice presidential vote for Nathaniel Macon, and most electors who cast their presidential vote for Crawford cast their vice presidential vote for Sanford. ^[10]
18. The Whigs did not unite around a single candidate in 1836, but the party ran only one presidential candidate per state. ^[8] 25 states held a popular vote in the 1836 election; Harrison was the Whig candidate in fifteen states, most of which were in the North, White was the Whig candidate in nine states, all of which were in the South, and Daniel Webster was the Whig candidate in Massachusetts. Harrison and White each received electoral votes from multiple states, while Webster and Willie Person Mangum each received electoral votes from a single state (Massachusetts and South Carolina, respectively). In total, the Whigs won 49.1 percent of the popular vote and 41.8 percent of the electoral vote. ^[10]
19. The Whigs did not select an official vice presidential nominee, and, as in the presidential race, two vice presidential contenders emerged. In most Northern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of Harrison and Granger, and in most Southern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of White and Tyler. ^[27] Granger, Tyler, and two Democrats, Richard Mentor Johnson and William Smith, each won a share of the electoral vote. ^[10] Because no one candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president, the Senate held a contingent election to select the vice president. In the only contingent election that the Senate has ever held, Johnson defeated Granger. ^[28]
20. The 1840 Democratic National Convention denied renomination to Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson, and the Democrats failed to officially nominate a vice presidential candidate in 1840. ^[31] Nonetheless, 48 of the 60 presidential electors who cast their presidential vote for Van Buren cast their vice presidential vote for Johnson. Most of the remaining Van Buren electors cast their vice presidential vote for Littleton Waller Tazewell. ^[32]
21. After the collapse of the Whig Party in the mid-1850s, the Republican Party and the American Party (the political organization of the Know Nothing movement) emerged as the major challengers to the Democratic Party. By 1856, neither the Republican Party nor the American Party had truly supplanted the Whig Party as the second major political party in the United States. ^[36] Nonetheless, the American Party is frequently described as a third party. ^{[37] [38] [39]} In 1856, the American Party, along with a rump convention of Whigs, nominated a presidential ticket led by former President Millard Fillmore. ^[40] After the 1856 election, the Republican Party firmly established itself as one of the two major parties alongside the Democratic Party, while the American Party collapsed. ^[41]
22. The Democratic Party fractured along sectional lines in 1860 and held multiple national conventions. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas and the Southern Democrats nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge. ^{[44] [45]} Many sources include Breckinridge as a third party candidate, ^{[46] [10] [47]} but other sources do not. ^{[48] [1]}
23. Greeley and Benjamin Gratz Brown were nominated by the Liberal Republican Party, a splinter group of Republicans. The ticket of Greeley and Brown was later nominated by the 1872 Democratic National Convention, as the Democrats hoped to defeat President Ulysses S. Grant's re-election bid by uniting with the Liberal Republicans. ^{[11] [52]}
24. Greeley had served in the House of Representatives from December 1848 to March 1849. He was primarily known for his role as editor of the New-York Tribune . ^[53]
25. Greeley died after election day but before the Electoral College cast its votes, and thus did not receive any electoral votes. ^[1] Greeley would have won 66 electoral votes (18.8% of the 352 electoral votes available) had he been alive when the Electoral College cast its votes. ^[54] Most of the electoral votes that he would have received had he lived instead went to Democrat Thomas A. Hendricks. ^[1]
26. In 1896, after Bryan won the Democratic presidential nomination, he was also nominated by the Populist Party, a major third party. The Populist vice presidential nominee was Thomas E. Watson. ^[61] Bryan's running mate on the Democratic ticket, Arthur Sewall, won 149 electoral votes for vice president, while Watson won 27 electoral votes for vice president. ^[10]
27. Parker was the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, the highest court in New York.
28. After Taft defeated Theodore Roosevelt for the presidential nomination at the 1912 Republican National Convention, supporters of Roosevelt established the Progressive Party, a third party dedicated to progressive ideals. ^{[63] [64] [65]} In the 1912 election, Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson won a plurality of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote. Roosevelt won the second highest share of electoral votes and popular votes, while Taft finished in third place in both categories. ^[10] Roosevelt is the only third-party candidate ever to win the second-most popular votes in a presidential election. ^[66]
29. Sherman died on October 30, 1912, and Taft did not name another running mate before the 1912 election was held. After the election, the Republican National Committee designated Nicholas Murray Butler as Taft's running mate for the purposes of the electoral vote, and Butler received eight electoral votes. ^[68]
30. Willkie was an attorney who had served as the president of the Commonwealth & Southern Corporation in the 1930s.
31. The 1972 Democratic National Convention selected Thomas Eagleton as the party's vice presidential nominee, but Eagleton dropped out of the race after it was publicly disclosed that he had undergone electroconvulsive therapy in order to treat depression. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the Democratic ticket. ^[82]
32. Though the Progressive Party of 1912 and the Progressive Party of 1924 shared names and an association with the progressive movement, they were two distinct political parties. ^[100]
33. Perot also ran in the 1996 presidential election with Pat Choate as his running mate, receiving 8.4% of the popular vote.
34. Perot was a businessman who was primarily known as the founder of Electronic Data Systems. ^[104]

References

1. "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
2. Blake, Aaron (April 27, 2016). "Why are there only two parties in American politics?". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 September 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
3. Thompson (1980), pp. 174–175
4. Knott, Stephen (4 October 2016). "George Washington: Campaigns and Elections". Miller Center. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
5. Morgan (1969), pp. 191–193
6. Preston, Daniel (4 October 2016). "James Monroe: Campaigns and Elections". Miller Center. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
7. Morgan (1969), p. 195
8. Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 106–107
9. Southwick (1998), pp. 12, 21, 26
10. "United States Presidential Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Archived from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
11. Hale (1950), p. 338
12. Neale, Thomas H. (3 November 2016), Contingent Election of the President and Vice President by Congress: Perspectives and Contemporary Analysis (PDF), Congressional Research Service, archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2017, retrieved 18 September 2018
13. Morgan (1969), pp. 185–186
14. "Jefferson, Thomas, (1743–1826)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on February 28, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
15. "Adams, John, (1735–1826)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
16. Morgan (1969), p. 186
17. "Charles Cotesworth Pinckney". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
18. "Clinton, De Witt, (1769–1828)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
19. Siry (1985), pp. 457–460
20. Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 65
21. "King, Rufus, (1755–1827)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
22. "Jackson, Andrew, (1767–1845)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on July 8, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
23. "Crawford, William Harris, (1772–1834)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
24. "Clay, Henry, (1777–1852)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on April 15, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
25. "Adams, John Quincy, (1767–1848)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 30, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
26. "Harrison, William Henry, (1773–1841)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
27. Peterson (1989), pp. 19–20
28. Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 108–109
29. "White, Hugh Lawson, (1773–1840)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 24, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
30. "Van Buren, Martin, (1782–1862)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
31. Sirgiovanni (1994), pp. 767–768
32. "Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President (1837–1841)". United States Senate. Archived from the original on September 26, 2018. Retrieved September 22, 2018.
33. "Cass, Lewis, (1782–1866)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on November 11, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
34. "Winfield Scott". History.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
35. "Frémont, John Charles, (1813–1890)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
36. McPherson (1988), pp. 140–144, 153–154
37. Cooper, William (4 October 2016). "James Buchanan: Campaigns and Elections". Miller Center. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on May 21, 2021. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
38. Boissoneault, Lorraine (January 26, 2017). "How the 19th-Century Know Nothing Party Reshaped American Politics". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
39. Hicks (1933), p. 10
40. Holt (2010), pp. 91–94
41. Gienapp (1985), p. 547
42. Gienapp (1987), p. 323
43. "Douglas, Stephen Arnold, (1813–1861)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
44. Smith (1975), pp. 106–113
45. VandeCreek, Drew E. "Campaign of 1860". Northern Illinois University Libraries. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
46. Patch, B. W. (1936). "Third Party Movements in American Politics". CQPress. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
47. Rosenstone et al. (2018), pp. 59–63
48. Hicks (1933), pp. 3–28
49. "George McClellan". History.com. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on September 30, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
50. "Horatio Seymour". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
51. "Greeley, Horace, (1811–1872)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
52. Frail, T. A. (July 26, 2018). "The Only Time a Major Party Embraced a Third-Party Candidate for President". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
53. "1872: Grant v. Greeley". HarpWeek, LLC. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2018.
54. Seitz (1926), p. 391
55. "Samuel Tilden Biography". UCR. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
56. "Winfield Scott Hancock". History.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. 21 August 2018. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
57. "Blaine, James Gillespie, (1830–1893)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
58. "Grover Cleveland". WhiteHouse.gov. Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
59. "Harrison, Benjamin, (1833–1901)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
60. "Bryan, William Jennings, (1860–1925)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
61. Kazin (2006), pp. 63–65
62. Mandelbaum, Robert M. "Alton Brooks Parker". NYCourts.gov. Historical Society of the New York Courts. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
63. Jacobson, Aileen (October 5, 2012). "A Landmark Race With the Bull Moose". New York Times. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
64. Milkis, Sidney (4 October 2016). "Theodore Roosevelt: Campaigns and Elections". Miller Center. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on August 4, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
65. Glass, Andrew (August 6, 2017). "Bull Moose convention nominates Theodore Roosevelt, Aug. 7, 1912". Politico. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved September 19, 2018.
66. Demaria, Ed (October 13, 2016). "Third Party Candidates Poised for Marginal Success for First Time in Years". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 26, 2018. Retrieved September 18, 2018.
67. "William Howard Taft". WhiteHouse.gov. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
68. "James S. Sherman, 27th Vice President (1909–1912)". United States Senate. Archived from the original on September 26, 2018. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
69. "Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948)". Office of the Historian. United States State Department. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
70. "Cox, James Middleton, (1870–1957)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
71. "Davis, John William, (1873–1955)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on April 24, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
72. "Al Smith". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
73. "Herbert Hoover". WhiteHouse.gov. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
74. "Alf Landon, G.O.P. Stand-Bearer, Dies at 100". The New York Times. October 13, 1987. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
75. "Wendell Willkie". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
76. "Thomas E. Dewey Is Dead at 68". New York Times. March 17, 1971. Archived from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
77. "Adlai E. Stevenson". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
78. "Nixon, Richard Milhous, (1913–1994)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
79. "Goldwater, Barry Morris, (1909–1998)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 25, 2013. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
80. "Humphrey, Hubert Horatio, Jr., (1911–1978)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on August 2, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
81. "McGovern, George Stanley, (1922–2012)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
82. Clymer, Adam (March 5, 2007). "Thomas F. Eagleton, 77, a Running Mate for 18 Days, Dies". New York Times. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 22, 2018.
83. "Ford, Gerald Rudolph, Jr., (1913–2006)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on October 5, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
84. "James Carter". WhiteHouse.gov. Archived from the original on September 21, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
85. "Mondale, Walter Frederick, (1928–2021 )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
86. "Michael Dukakis Fast Facts". CNN. October 21, 2017. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
87. "Bush, George Herbert Walker, (1924– )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
88. "Dole, Robert Joseph, (1923– )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
89. "Gore, Albert Arnold, Jr., (1948– )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on July 11, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
90. "Kerry, John Forbes, (1943– )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on March 31, 2016. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
91. "McCain, John Sidney, III, (1936–2018)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on January 5, 2016. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
92. "Mitt Romney". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
93. "Clinton, Hillary Rodham, (1947– )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
94. "Donald Trump Biography". Biography. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved August 20, 2020.
95. Rosenstone et al. (2018), Appendix A
96. "Fillmore, Millard, (1800–1874)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on November 5, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
97. "Breckinridge, John Cabell, (1821–1875)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
98. "Bell, John, (1796–1869)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
99. "Theodore Roosevelt". WhiteHouse.gov. Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
100. Rosenstone et al. (2018), p. 93
101. "La Follette, Robert Marion, (1855–1925)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
102. "George C. Wallace". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
103. "Ross Perot". Biography.com. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
104. Bernstein, David S. (March 29, 2016). "Why Hillary Clinton Should Be Worried About Ross Perot". Politico. Archived from the original on September 21, 2018. Retrieved September 21, 2018.

Works cited

• Deskins, Donald Richard; Walton, Hanes; Puckett, Sherman (2010). Presidential Elections, 1789–2008: County, State, and National Mapping of Election Data. University of Michigan Press. ISBN   978-0472116973.
• Gienapp, William E. (1985). "Nativism and the Creation of a Republican Majority in the North before the Civil War". The Journal of American History. 72 (3): 529–555. doi:10.2307/1904303. JSTOR   1904303. S2CID   159570266.
• Gienapp, William E. (1987). The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780198021148.
• Hale, William Harlan (1950). Horace Greeley: Voice of the People . Harper & Brothers. OCLC   336934.
• Hicks, John D. (1933). "The Third Party Tradition in American Politics". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 20 (1): 3–28. doi:10.2307/1902325. JSTOR   1902325.
• Holt, Michael F. (2010). Franklin Pierce. Times Books. ISBN   978-0-8050-8719-2.
• Kazin, Michael (2006). A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan . Knopf. ISBN   978-0375411359.
• McPherson, James M. (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199743902. Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2018-09-16.
• Morgan, William G. (1969). "The Origin and Development of the Congressional Nominating Caucus". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 113 (2): 184–196. JSTOR   985965.
• Peterson, Norma Lois (1989). The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler. University Press of Kansas. ISBN   978-0-7006-0400-5.
• Rosenstone, Steven J.; Behr, Roy L.; Lazarus, Edward H. (2018). Third Parties in America: Citizen Response to Major Party Failure (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691190525.
• Seitz, Don Carlos (1926). Horace Greeley: Founder of The New York Tribune. Bobbs-Merrill. Archived from the original on 2018-07-28. Retrieved 2018-09-17.
• Sirgiovanni, George S. (1994). "Dumping the Vice President: An Historical Overview and Analysis". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 24 (4): 765–782. JSTOR   27551324.
• Siry, Steven Edwin (1985). "The Sectional Politics of "Practical Republicanism": De Witt Clinton's Presidential Bid, 1810–1812". Journal of the Early Republic. 5 (4): 441–462. doi:10.2307/3123061. JSTOR   3123061.
• Smith, Elbert B. (1975). The Presidency of James Buchanan . University Press of Kansas. ISBN   978-0-7006-0132-5.
• Southwick, Leslie (1998). Presidential Also-Rans and Running Mates, 1788 through 1996 (Second ed.). McFarland. ISBN   0-7864-0310-1.
• Thompson, Harry C. (1980). "The Second Place in Rome: John Adams as Vice President". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 10 (2): 171–178. JSTOR   27547562.

Further reading

• Farris, Scott (2011). Almost President: The Men Who Lost The Race But Changed The Nation . Lyons Press. ISBN   978-0762763788.
• Morris, Seymour (2017). Fit for the Presidency?: Winners, Losers, What-ifs, and Also-rans. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN   9781612348872.
• Stone, Irving (1966) [1943]. They Also Ran (Revised ed.). Doubleday. ISBN   978-0385074094.

External links

• "Presidential Elections Data". The American Presidency Project. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
• "Presidential Elections, 1789 to 1920: Resource Guides". Library of Congress. Retrieved 18 September 2018.