Psilocybe cyanescens

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Psilocybe cyanescens
2012-12-05 Psilocybe cyanescens Wakef 290262.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Species:
P. cyanescens
Binomial name
Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanescens
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Umbonate cap icon.svg Cap is umbonate
Adnate gills icon2.svgSubdecurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate or subdecurrent
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is blackish-brown to purple
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Psychoactive.pngEdibility is psychoactive

Psilocybe cyanescens, commonly known as the wavy cap or potent psilocybe, [1] is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the family Hymenogastraceae. A formal description of the species was published by Elsie Wakefield in 1946 in the Transactions of the British Mycological Society , based on a specimen she had recently collected at Kew Gardens. [2] She had begun collecting the species as early as 1910. [3] [4] The mushroom is not generally regarded as being physically dangerous to adults. [5] [6] Since all the psychoactive compounds in P. cyanescens are water-soluble, the fruiting bodies can be rendered non-psychoactive through parboiling, allowing their culinary use. However, since most people find them overly bitter and they are too small to have great nutritive value, this is not frequently done. [5]

Contents

Psilocybe cyanescens can sometimes fruit in colossal quantities; more than 100,000 individual mushrooms were found growing in a single patch at a racetrack in England. [7]

Description

Appearance

Psilocybe cyanescens has a hygrophanous pileus (cap) that is caramel to chestnut-brown when moist, fading to pale buff or slightly yellowish when dried. Caps generally measure from 1.5–5 cm (½" to 2") across, and are normally distinctly wavy in maturity. [1] The color of the pileus is rarely seen in mushrooms outside of the P. cyanescens species complex. Most parts of the mushroom, including the cap and Lamellae (gills, underneath the cap) can stain blue when touched or otherwise disturbed, probably due to the oxidation of psilocin. [6] [8] The lamellae are adnate, and light brown to dark purple brown in maturity, with lighter gill edges. There is no distinct annulus, but immature P. cyanescens specimens do have a cobwebby veil which may leave an annular zone in maturity. [1] Both the odor and taste are farinaceous.

P. cyanescens has elliptical spores which measure 9–12 x 5–8 μm. [9] According to some authors, the holotype collection of the species from Kew Gardens featured no pleurocystidia, but North American collections are characterized by common clavate-mucronate pleurocystidia. [5] [6] However, pleurocystidia are present in the holotype collection (but not easily to observe since hymenium is collapsed). In European collections of P. cyanescens, pleurocystidia are common and their shape is identical to those known from the United States. [2] [10] In 2012, an epitype from Hamburg, Germany was designated. [11]

Fresh sporocarps and mycelia of P. cyanescens generally bruise blueish or blue-green where damaged, and the staining remains visible after drying. This staining is most noticeable on the stem (which is white when undisturbed) but can also occur on other parts of the mushroom, including the gills, cap, [1] and mycelium. [5] This staining is due primarily to the oxidation of psilocin. (Psilocybin cannot be oxidized directly, but is quickly converted via enzymatic action to psilocin at injury sites which can then be oxidized, so even specimens with little psilocin still generally stain blue.) [6] [8]

Psilocybe cyanescens in situ Cyanescens In situ.jpg
Psilocybe cyanescens in situ

Other related species may include P. weraroa , and these relatives are collectively referred to as the "Psilocybe cyanescens complex" or as the "caramel-capped psilocybe complex," due to their extremely similar appearance and habit. [5] There is phylogenetic evidence that there are two distinct clades in the complex, one consisting of P. cyanescens and P. azurescens and allies, and the other consisting of P. serbica and allies (European taxa). [12] It has also been shown that Psilocybe weraroa (previously known as Weraroa novae-zelandiae) is very closely related to P. cyanescens despite its vastly dissimilar appearance. [12]

A very close relative of P. cyanescens is Psilocybe allenii (described in 2012), formerly known as Psilocybe cyanofriscosa, a mushroom found in California and Washington [13] [11] It can be distinguished by macromorphological features and/or sequencing of rDNA ITS molecular marker.

It is often difficult or impossible to distinguish between members of the P. cyanescens complex except by range without resorting to microscopic or molecular characters. [5]

Although not closely related, Psilocybe cyanescens has been at least occasionally confused with Galerina marginata with fatal results.[ citation needed ] The two mushrooms have generally similar habits and appearances, and bear a superficial resemblance to each other such that inexperienced mushroom-seekers may confuse the two. [1] The two species can grow side-by-side, which may add to the chance of confusion. [14] The two mushrooms have different colored spores, making a spore print essential to proper identification.

Habitat and distribution

Approximate known range of Psilocybe cyanescens Psilocybe cyanescens range-map.png
Approximate known range of Psilocybe cyanescens

Psilocybe cyanescens grows today primarily on wood chips, especially in and along the perimeter of mulched plant beds in urban areas, [3] but can also grow on other lignin-rich substrates. [5] P. cyanescens does not grow on substrate that is not lignin-rich. [1] [5] Fruitings have been reported in natural settings previously (although most appear to be migrations from mulched plant beds.) [5] [7] The species does not typically grow on mulch that is made from bark. [15]

In the United States, P. cyanescens occurs mainly in the Pacific Northwest, stretching south to the San Francisco Bay Area. It can also be found in areas such as New Zealand, [16] Western Europe, Central Europe, and parts of west Asia (Iran). [17] The range in which P. cyanescens occurs is rapidly expanding, especially in areas where it is not native as the use of mulch to control weeds has been popularized. [7] This rapid expansion of range may be due in part to the simple expedient of P. cyanescens mycelium having colonized the distribution network of woodchip suppliers and thus being distributed on a large scale with commercial mulch. [3] It has been documented to fruit in Spring on the East Coast of the United States. [18]

Although it has been speculated that P. cyanescens' native habitat is the coniferous woodlands of the north-western United States [3] [5] or coastal dunes in the PNW, the type specimen was described from mulch beds in Kew Gardens, and there is no widely accepted explanation of P. cyanescens original habitat. [3]

Fruiting is dependent on a drop in temperature. [5] In the San Francisco Bay Area, this means that fruiting typically occurs between late October and February, [1] and fruiting in other areas generally occurs in fall, when temperatures are between 10-18 °C (50-65 °F). [5]

Psilocybe cyanescens often fruits gregariously or in cespitose clusters, sometimes in great numbers. 100,000 P. cyanescens fruits were once found growing on a racetrack in the south of England. [7] Solitary fruits are sometimes also found. [5]

Indole content

The fruits of P. cyanescens have been shown to contain many different indole alkaloids including psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin. [5] [6] It has also been shown that P. cyanescens mycelium will contain detectable levels of psilocin and psilocybin, but only after the formation of primordia. [19]

Indole content has been shown to be higher in North American specimens of P. cyanescens than in European ones. [6] This was, however, caused by the fact that Gartz did not analyze the genuine P. cyanescens but P. serbica.[ citation needed ]

North American fruiting bodies of P. cyanescens have been shown to contain between 0.66% and 1.96% total indole content by dry weight. [20] European fruiting bodies have been shown to have between 0.39% and 0.75% total indole content by dry weight. [6]

North American specimens of P. cyanescens are among the most potent of psychedelic mushrooms. [1] [5] Its potency means that it is widely sought after by users of recreational drugs in those areas where it grows naturally. [5]

Cultivation

Fruiting begins with simulation of a fall environment at temperatures between 10–18 °C (50–64 °F).[ citation needed ]

Psilocybe cyanescens, like many other psilocybin containing mushrooms, is sometimes cultivated. [5] Due to the fruiting requirements of the species, it is challenging but possible to get P. cyanescens to produce fruits indoors. [5] Outdoor cultivation in an appropriate climate is relatively easy. [5] Yield per pound of substrate is low when compared to other psilocybin containing mushrooms for both indoor and outdoor cultivation. [5] The combination of poor yield and difficulty may explain why P. cyanescens is grown less frequently than some other psilocybin containing mushrooms. [5]

Psilocybe cyanescens mycelium is easier to grow than actual fruits are, can be grown indoors, [5] and is robust enough that it can be transplanted in order to start new patches. [1] Mycelium can also be propagated via stem butt transplantation. [5] Many of the cultivation techniques used with other members of the genus Psilocybe can be used to grow P. cyanescens as well. [6] Cultivated P. cyanescens contain approximately the same concentration of psilocin and psilocybin as natural examples do. [6]

Psilocybe cyanescens spores Psilocybe cyanescens spores 1000x.JPG
Psilocybe cyanescens spores

Psilocybe cyanescens specimens do not fall under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances because the convention does not cover naturally occurring plants or fungi that incidentally contain a scheduled drug. [21] However, many countries choose to prohibit possession of psilocybin containing mushrooms, including P. cyanescens, under their domestic laws. [22]

Countries that have banned or severely regulated the possession of P. cyanescens include the United States, Germany, New Zealand, and many others. Although this is difficult to enforce since no species of Psilocybe mushroom has spores containing psilocybin or psilocin. [22] Because of this, Psilocybe cyanescens spores are not illegal to possess in many US states. (It is illegal to possess spores in Georgia and Idaho, and illegal to possess them with the intent to produce mushrooms in California.) [22]

Related Research Articles

<i>Psilocybe cubensis</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe cubensis, commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis. It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation. This mushroom being optimal for home cultivation specifically, as was suggested in the 1970s, is primarily what led to P. cubensis being the psilocybin mushroom species most common on the black market as a street drug.

<i>Psilocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Psilocybe is a genus of gilled mushrooms, growing worldwide, in the family Hymenogastraceae. Many species contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

<i>Psilocybe semilanceata</i> Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae, native to Europe

Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed, and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown in mass, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 micrometres.

<i>Galerina</i> Genus of saprobic fungi

Galerina is a genus of small brown-spore saprobic fungi, with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. The genus is most noted for some extremely poisonous species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe. Species are typically small and hygrophanous, with a slender and brittle stem. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats.

<i>Psilocybe tampanensis</i> Psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe tampanensis is a very rare psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. Originally collected in the wild in a sandy meadow near Tampa, Florida, in 1977, the fungus would not be found in Florida again until 44 years later. The original Florida specimen was cloned, and descendants remain in wide circulation. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are yellowish-brown in color with convex to conic caps up to 2.4 cm (0.9 in) in diameter atop a thin stem up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long. Psilocybe tampanensis forms psychoactive truffle-like sclerotia that are known and sold under the nickname "philosopher's stones". The fruit bodies and sclerotia are consumed by some for recreational or entheogenic purposes. In nature, sclerotia are produced by the fungus as a rare form of protection from wildfires and other natural disasters.

<i>Psilocybe azurescens</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe azurescens is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose main active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It is among the most potent of the tryptamine-bearing mushrooms, containing up to 1.8% psilocybin, 0.5% psilocin, and 0.4% baeocystin by dry weight, averaging to about 1.1% psilocybin and 0.15% psilocin. It belongs to the family Hymenogastraceae in the order Agaricales.

<i>Psilocybe baeocystis</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe baeocystis is a psilocybin mushroom of the family Hymenogastraceae. It contains the hallucinogenic compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. The species is commonly known by various names such as bottle caps, knobby tops, blue bells, olive caps.

<i>Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata is a psilocybin mushroom, having psilocybin and/or psilocin as main active compounds. It is closely related to P. subaeruginascens from Java, P. septentrionalis from Japan, and P. wayanadensis from India. This mushroom was first documented by Richard V. Gaines in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania in June 2003. Although it is sometimes confused with Psilocybe caerulipes, it can be distinguished by its rhomboid spores, larger stature, earlier fruiting season and membranous annulus.

<i>Psilocybe subaeruginosa</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe subaeruginosa is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae described in 1927 and known from Australia and New Zealand. As a blueing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin.

Psilocybe cyanofibrillosa, also known as rhododendron psilocybe and blue-haired psilocybe, is a psilocybin mushroom of the family Hymenogastraceae having psilocybin and psilocin as main active compounds. First documented in 1980 in the Pacific Northwest, it is relatively uncommon and can be distinguished from other closely related species by its smaller spores and forking cheilocystidia. Psilocybe cyanescens also has forking cheilocystidia, but less often than Psilocybe cyanofibrillosa. Psilocybe cyanofibrillosa is also distinguished from Psilocybe cyanescens by an absence of pleurocystidia. The name of this species refers to the fibrils on the Stipe (mycology) that turn bluish in age, or when handled.

<i>Psilocybe weraroa</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe weraroa, formerly Weraroa novae-zelandiae, is a secotioid fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. It is endemic to New Zealand, where it grows in native forests from rotting wood and woody debris. Despite its pouch-like form this species is closely related to Psilocybe cyanescens and Psilocybe subaeruginosa. As a bluing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin. It has been cultivated commercially by Rua Bioscience with a view to researching potential medical applications, bringing together its traditional uses in Rongoā Māori with the recent interest in Western medicine into the medical applications of psilocin and psilocybin.

<i>Psilocybe aztecorum</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe aztecorum is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. Known from Arizona, Colorado, central Mexico, India and Costa Rica, the fungus grows on decomposing woody debris and is found in mountainous areas at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 m, typically in meadows or open, grassy conifer forests. The mushrooms have convex to bell-shaped caps 1.5–2 cm (0.6–0.8 in) in diameter, atop slender cylindrical stems that are up to 7.5 cm (3.0 in) long. The color of the caps changes with variations in hydration, ranging from dark chestnut brown to straw yellow or whitish when dry. The base of the stem is densely covered with conspicuous white rhizomorphs, a characteristic uncommon amongst Psilocybe species.

<i>Psilocybe hoogshagenii</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe hoogshagenii is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. The mushroom has a brownish conical or bell-shaped cap up to 3 cm (1.2 in) wide that has an extended papilla up to 4 mm long. The stem is slender and 5 to 9 cm long. The variety P. hoogshagenii var. convexa lacks the long papilla.

<i>Psilocybe makarorae</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe makarorae is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. Officially described as new to science in 1995, it is known only from New Zealand, where it grows on rotting wood and twigs of southern beeches. The fruit body (mushroom) has a brownish cap with lighter coloured margins, measuring up to 3.5 cm (1.4 in) wide. The cap shape is either conical, bell-shaped, or flat depending on the age of the mushroom, and it features a prominent umbo. Although the whitish stem does not form a true ring, it retains remnants of the partial veil that covers and protects the gills of young fruit bodies. P. makarorae mushrooms can be distinguished from the similar North American species Psilocybe caerulipes by microscopic characteristics such as the presence of cystidia on the gill faces (pleurocystidia), and cheilocystidia with more elongated necks. Based on the bluing reaction to injury, P. makarorae is presumed to contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

<i>Psilocybe serbica</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe serbica is a species of mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. The mushroom contains the psychotropic compounds psilocybin and psilocin, and also related tryptamine alkaloids baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin. It is closely related to Psilocybe aztecorum. It was reported as new to science by Meinhard Moser and Egon Horak in 1969. Molecular analysis published in 2010 has shown that P. serbica is the same species as Psilocybe bohemica described by Šebek in 1983, Psilocybe arcana described by Borovička and Hlaváček in 2001, and Psilocybe moravica by Borovička in 2003. Psilocybe serbica is common in Central Europe.

Psilocybe tasmaniana is a species of coprophilous agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. It was described by Gastón Guzmán and Roy Watling in 1978 as a small tawny orange mushroom that grows on dung, with a slight blueing reaction to damage, known only from Tasmania and southeastern Australia. It was likened to Psilocybe subaeruginosa although characteristics, appearance, and the association with dung were not typical for that species. As a blueing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin.

<i>Psilocybe yungensis</i> Psychedelic mushroom in the family Strophariaceae

Psilocybe yungensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. In North America, it is found in northeast, central and southeastern Mexico. In South America, it has been recorded from Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador. It is also known from the Caribbean island Martinique, and China. The mushroom grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood. The fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped reddish- to orangish-brown caps that are up to 2.5 cm (1.0 in) in diameter, set atop slender stems 3 to 5 cm long. The mushrooms stain blue when bruised, indicative of the presence of the compound psilocybin. Psilocybe yungensis is used by Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca for entheogenic purposes.

<i>Psilocybe pelliculosa</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.

Psilocybe washingtonensis is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. It is similar in appearance to Psilocybe pelliculosa and P. silvatica, and a microscope is needed to reliably distinguish between them.

<i>Psilocybe allenii</i> Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe allenii is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. Described as new to science in 2012, it is named after John W. Allen, who provided the type collection. It is found in the northwestern North America from British Columbia, Canada to Los Angeles, California, most commonly within 10 miles (16 km) of the Pacific coast.

References

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  2. 1 2 Dennis, R.W.G.; Wakefield, E.M. (1 September 1946). "New or interesting British fungi". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 29 (3): 141–166. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(46)80038-X.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Shaw, Peter J.A.; Geoffrey Kibby (January 2001). "Aliens in the Flowerbeds: The fungal biodiversity of ornamental woodchips". Field Mycology. 2 (1): 6–11. doi: 10.1016/s1468-1641(10)60081-3 .
  4. ↑ Duffy, Thomas. "Toxic Fungi of Western North America". Myokoweb. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Paul Stamets (2000). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms). Ten Speed Press. p. 329. ISBN   978-1-58008-175-7.
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  7. 1 2 3 4 Brown, Paul (January 3, 2011). "Magic mushrooms thrive as weeds wane". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  8. 1 2 Spoerke, edited by David G.; Rumack, Barry H. (1994). Handbook of mushroom poisoning : diagnosis and treatment. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-0194-0.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
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  10. ↑ Borovička, Jan (2008). "The wood-rotting bluing Psilocybe species in central Europe - an identification key". Czech Mycology. 60 (2): 173–192. doi:10.33585/cmy.60202.
  11. 1 2 Borovička J, Rockefeller A, Werner PG (2012). "Psilocybe allenii – a new bluing species from the west coast, USA" (PDF). Czech Mycology. 64 (2): 181–95. doi:10.33585/cmy.64207.
  12. 1 2 Borovička, Jan; Noordeloos, Machiel E.; Gryndler, Milan; Oborník, Miroslav (2010). "Molecular phylogeny of Psilocybe cyanescens complex in Europe, with reference to the position of the secotioid Weraroa novae-zelandiae". Mycological Progress. 10 (2): 149–155. Bibcode:2011MycPr..10..149B. doi:10.1007/s11557-010-0684-3. S2CID   36050854.
  13. ↑ Beug, Michael (2011). "The Genus Psilocybe of North America". Fungi Magazine. 4 (3).
  14. ↑ Beug, Michael. "POISONOUS AND HALLUCINOGENIC MUSHROOMS". Evergreen State College. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
  15. ↑ Stamets, Paul (2005). Mycelium running : how mushrooms can help save the world. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN   978-1-58008-579-3.
  16. ↑ "Wavy Cap (Psilocybe cyanescens)". iNaturalist NZ. August 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-21.
  17. ↑ Asef Shayan MR. (2010). قارچهای سمی ایران (Qarch-ha-ye Sammi-ye Iran)[Poisonous mushrooms of Iran] (in Persian). Iran shenasi. p. 214. ISBN   978-964-2725-29-8.
  18. ↑ "Long Island Mycological Club". www.limyco.org. Retrieved 2018-09-03.
  19. ↑ Gross, Susan (May 2000). "Detecting psychoactive drugs in the developmental stages of mushrooms". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 45 (3): 527–537. doi:10.1520/JFS14725J. PMID   10855955.
  20. ↑ BEUG, M; BIGWOOD, J (1 May 1982). "Psilocybin and psilocin levels in twenty species from seven genera of wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 5 (3): 271–285. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90013-7. PMID   7201053.
  21. ↑ Lande, Adolf (1976). Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. New York: United Nations. p. 385.
  22. 1 2 3 "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault : Law : Legality of Psilocybin Mushroom Spores".
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