Protein kinase C

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Protein kinase C
Identifiers
EC no. 2.7.11.13
CAS no. 141436-78-4
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MetaCyc metabolic pathway
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NCBI proteins
Protein kinase C terminal domain
Identifiers
SymbolPkinase_C
Pfam PF00433
InterPro IPR017892
Available protein structures:
Pfam   structures / ECOD  
PDB RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum structure summary

In cell biology, Protein kinase C, commonly abbreviated to PKC (EC 2.7.11.13), is a family of protein kinase enzymes that are involved in controlling the function of other proteins through the phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of serine and threonine amino acid residues on these proteins, or a member of this family. PKC enzymes in turn are activated by signals such as increases in the concentration of diacylglycerol (DAG) or calcium ions (Ca2+). [1] Hence PKC enzymes play important roles in several signal transduction cascades. [2]

Contents

In biochemistry, the PKC family consists of fifteen isozymes in humans. [3] They are divided into three subfamilies, based on their second messenger requirements: conventional (or classical), novel, and atypical. [4] Conventional (c)PKCs contain the isoforms α, βI, βII, and γ. These require Ca2+, DAG, and a phospholipid such as phosphatidylserine for activation. Novel (n)PKCs include the δ, ε, η, and θ isoforms, and require DAG, but do not require Ca2+ for activation. Thus, conventional and novel PKCs are activated through the same signal transduction pathway as phospholipase C. On the other hand, atypical (a)PKCs (including protein kinase Mζ and ι / λ isoforms) require neither Ca2+ nor diacylglycerol for activation. The term "protein kinase C" usually refers to the entire family of isoforms. The different classes of PKCs found in jawed vertebrates originate from 5 ancestral PKC family members (PKN, aPKC, cPKC, nPKCE, nPKCD) that expanded due to genome duplication. [5] The broader PKC family is ancient and can be found back in fungi, which means that the PKC family was present in the last common ancestor of opisthokonts.

Human isozymes

Structure

The structure of all PKCs consists of a regulatory domain and a catalytic domain (Active site) tethered together by a hinge region. The catalytic region is highly conserved among the different isoforms, as well as, to a lesser degree, among the catalytic region of other serine/threonine kinases. The second messenger requirement differences in the isoforms are a result of the regulatory region, which are similar within the classes, but differ among them. Most of the crystal structure of the catalytic region of PKC has not been determined, except for PKC theta and iota. Due to its similarity to other kinases whose crystal structure have been determined, the structure can be strongly predicted.

Regulatory

The regulatory domain or the amino-terminus of the PKCs contains several shared subregions. The C1 domain, present in all of the isoforms of PKC has a binding site for DAG as well as non-hydrolysable, non-physiological analogues called phorbol esters. This domain is functional and capable of binding DAG in both conventional and novel isoforms, however, the C1 domain in atypical PKCs is incapable of binding to DAG or phorbol esters. The C2 domain acts as a Ca2+ sensor and is present in both conventional and novel isoforms, but functional as a Ca2+ sensor only in the conventional. The pseudosubstrate region, which is present in all three classes of PKC, is a small sequence of amino acids that mimic a substrate and bind the substrate-binding cavity in the catalytic domain, lack critical serine, threonine phosphoacceptor residues, keeping the enzyme inactive. When Ca2+ and DAG are present in sufficient concentrations, they bind to the C2 and C1 domain, respectively, and recruit PKC to the membrane. This interaction with the membrane results in release of the pseudosubstrate from the catalytic site and activation of the enzyme. In order for these allosteric interactions to occur, however, PKC must first be properly folded and in the correct conformation permissive for catalytic action. This is contingent upon phosphorylation of the catalytic region, discussed below.

Catalytic

The catalytic region or kinase core of the PKC allows for different functions to be processed; PKB (also known as Akt) and PKC kinases contains approximately 40% amino acid sequence similarity. This similarity increases to ~ 70% across PKCs and even higher when comparing within classes. For example, the two atypical PKC isoforms, ζ and ι/λ, are 84% identical (Selbie et al., 1993). Of the over-30 protein kinase structures whose crystal structure has been revealed, all have the same basic organization. They are a bilobal structure with a β sheet comprising the N-terminal lobe and an α helix constituting the C-terminal lobe. Both the ATP-binding protein (ATP)- and the substrate-binding sites are located in the cleft formed by these two terminal lobes. This is also where the pseudosubstrate domain of the regulatory region binds.

Another feature of the PKC catalytic region that is essential to the viability of the kinase is its phosphorylation. The conventional and novel PKCs have three phosphorylation sites, termed: the activation loop, the turn motif, and the hydrophobic motif. The atypical PKCs are phosphorylated only on the activation loop and the turn motif. Phosphorylation of the hydrophobic motif is rendered unnecessary by the presence of a glutamic acid in place of a serine, which, as a negative charge, acts similar in manner to a phosphorylated residue. These phosphorylation events are essential for the activity of the enzyme, and 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDPK1) is the upstream kinase responsible for initiating the process by transphosphorylation of the activation loop. [6]

The consensus sequence of protein kinase C enzymes is similar to that of protein kinase A, since it contains basic amino acids close to the Ser/Thr to be phosphorylated. Their substrates are, e.g., MARCKS proteins, MAP kinase, transcription factor inhibitor IκB, the vitamin D 3 receptor VDR, Raf kinase, calpain, and the epidermal growth factor receptor.

Activation

Upon activation, protein kinase C enzymes are translocated to the plasma membrane by RACK proteins (membrane-bound receptor for activated protein kinase C proteins). This localization also gives the enzyme access to substrate, an activation mechanism termed substrate presentation. The protein kinase C enzymes are known for their long-term activation: They remain activated after the original activation signal or the Ca2+-wave is gone. It is presumed that this is achieved by the production of diacylglycerol from phosphatidylinositol by a phospholipase; fatty acids may also play a role in long-term activation. A critical part of PKC activation is translocation to the cell membrane. Interestingly, this process is disrupted in microgravity, which causes immunodeficiency of astronauts. [7]

Function

A multiplicity of functions have been ascribed to PKC. Recurring themes are that PKC is involved in receptor desensitization, in modulating membrane structure events, in regulating transcription, in mediating immune responses, in regulating cell growth, and in learning and memory. These functions are achieved by PKC-mediated phosphorylation of other proteins. PKC plays an important role in the immune system through phosphorylation of CARD-CC family proteins and subsequent NF-κB activation. [8] However, the substrate proteins present for phosphorylation vary, since protein expression is different between different kinds of cells. Thus, effects of PKC are cell-type-specific:

Cell typeOrgan/systemActivators
ligands → Gq-GPCRs 		Effects
smooth muscle cell (gastrointestinal tract sphincters) digestive system contraction
smooth muscle cells in: Variouscontraction
smooth muscle cells in: sensory system acetylcholine → M3 receptor contraction
smooth muscle cell (vascular) circulatory system
smooth muscle cell (seminal tract) [12] : 163  [13] reproductive system ejaculation
smooth muscle cell (GI tract) digestive system
smooth muscle cell (bronchi) respiratory system bronchoconstriction [12] : 187 
proximal convoluted tubule cell kidney
  • stimulate NHE3 → H+ secretion & Na+ reabsorption [17]
  • stimulate basolateral Na-K ATPase → Na+ reabsorption [17]
neurons in autonomic ganglia nervous system acetylcholine → M1 receptor EPSP
neurons in CNS nervous system
  • neuronal excitation (5-HT) [12] [18] : 187 
  • memory (glutamate) [19]
platelets circulatory system 5-HT → 5-HT2A receptor [12] : 187 aggregation [12] : 187 
ependymal cells (choroid plexus) ventricular system 5-HT → 5-HT2C receptor [12] : 187 ↑  cerebrospinal fluid secretion [12] : 187 
heart muscle circulatory system positive ionotropic effect [10]
serous cells (salivary gland) digestive system
serous cells (lacrimal gland) digestive system
  • ↑ secretion [12] : 127 
adipocyte digestive system/endocrine system
hepatocyte digestive system
sweat gland cells integumentary system
  • ↑ secretion [10]
parietal cells digestive system acetylcholine → M3 receptors [20] ↑ gastric acid secretion
lymphocyte immune system
myelocyte immune system

Pathology

Protein kinase C, activated by tumor promoter phorbol ester, may phosphorylate potent activators of transcription, and thus lead to increased expression of oncogenes, promoting cancer progression, [21] or interfere with other phenomena. Prolonged exposure to phorbol ester, however, promotes the down-regulation of Protein kinase C. Loss-of-function mutations [22] and low PKC protein levels [23] are prevalent in cancer, supporting a general tumor-suppressive role for Protein kinase C.

Protein kinase C enzymes are important mediators of vascular permeability and have been implicated in various vascular diseases including disorders associated with hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus, as well as endothelial injury and tissue damage related to cigarette smoke. Low-level PKC activation is sufficient to reverse cell chirality through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT signaling and alters junctional protein organization between cells with opposite chirality, leading to an unexpected substantial change in endothelial permeability, which often leads to inflammation and disease. [24]

Inhibitors

Protein kinase C inhibitors, such as ruboxistaurin, may potentially be beneficial in peripheral diabetic nephropathy. [25]

Chelerythrine is a natural selective PKC inhibitor. Other naturally occurring PKCIs are miyabenol C, myricitrin, gossypol.

Other PKCIs : Verbascoside, BIM-1, Ro31-8220.

Bryostatin 1 can act as a PKC inhibitor; It was investigated for cancer.

Tamoxifen is a PKC inhibitor. [26]

Activators

The Protein kinase C activator ingenol mebutate, derived from the plant Euphorbia peplus , is FDA-approved for the treatment of actinic keratosis. [27] [28]

Bryostatin 1 can act as a PKCe activator and as of 2016 is being investigated for Alzheimer's disease. [29]

12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (PMA or TPA) is a diacylglycerol mimic that can activate the classical PKCs. It is often used together with ionomycin which provides the calcium-dependent signals needed for activation of some PKCs.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein kinase</span> Enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other proteins

A protein kinase is a kinase which selectively modifies other proteins by covalently adding phosphates to them (phosphorylation) as opposed to kinases which modify lipids, carbohydrates, or other molecules. Phosphorylation usually results in a functional change of the target protein (substrate) by changing enzyme activity, cellular location, or association with other proteins. The human genome contains about 500 protein kinase genes and they constitute about 2% of all human genes. There are two main types of protein kinase. The great majority are serine/threonine kinases, which phosphorylate the hydroxyl groups of serines and threonines in their targets. Most of the others are tyrosine kinases, although additional types exist. Protein kinases are also found in bacteria and plants. Up to 30% of all human proteins may be modified by kinase activity, and kinases are known to regulate the majority of cellular pathways, especially those involved in signal transduction.

A protein phosphatase is a phosphatase enzyme that removes a phosphate group from the phosphorylated amino acid residue of its substrate protein. Protein phosphorylation is one of the most common forms of reversible protein posttranslational modification (PTM), with up to 30% of all proteins being phosphorylated at any given time. Protein kinases (PKs) are the effectors of phosphorylation and catalyse the transfer of a γ-phosphate from ATP to specific amino acids on proteins. Several hundred PKs exist in mammals and are classified into distinct super-families. Proteins are phosphorylated predominantly on Ser, Thr and Tyr residues, which account for 79.3, 16.9 and 3.8% respectively of the phosphoproteome, at least in mammals. In contrast, protein phosphatases (PPs) are the primary effectors of dephosphorylation and can be grouped into three main classes based on sequence, structure and catalytic function. The largest class of PPs is the phosphoprotein phosphatase (PPP) family comprising PP1, PP2A, PP2B, PP4, PP5, PP6 and PP7, and the protein phosphatase Mg2+- or Mn2+-dependent (PPM) family, composed primarily of PP2C. The protein Tyr phosphatase (PTP) super-family forms the second group, and the aspartate-based protein phosphatases the third. The protein pseudophosphatases form part of the larger phosphatase family, and in most cases are thought to be catalytically inert, instead functioning as phosphate-binding proteins, integrators of signalling or subcellular traps. Examples of membrane-spanning protein phosphatases containing both active (phosphatase) and inactive (pseudophosphatase) domains linked in tandem are known, conceptually similar to the kinase and pseudokinase domain polypeptide structure of the JAK pseudokinases. A complete comparative analysis of human phosphatases and pseudophosphatases has been completed by Manning and colleagues, forming a companion piece to the ground-breaking analysis of the human kinome, which encodes the complete set of ~536 human protein kinases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein kinase A</span> Family of enzymes

In cell biology, protein kinase A (PKA) is a family of serine-threonine kinase whose activity is dependent on cellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP). PKA is also known as cAMP-dependent protein kinase. PKA has several functions in the cell, including regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism. It should not be confused with 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphoinositide phospholipase C</span>

Phosphoinositide phospholipase C is a family of eukaryotic intracellular enzymes that play an important role in signal transduction processes. These enzymes belong to a larger superfamily of Phospholipase C. Other families of phospholipase C enzymes have been identified in bacteria and trypanosomes. Phospholipases C are phosphodiesterases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphoinositide 3-kinase</span> Class of enzymes

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks), also called phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases, are a family of enzymes involved in cellular functions such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, motility, survival and intracellular trafficking, which in turn are involved in cancer.

Ca<sup>2+</sup>/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II Class of enzymes

Ca2+
/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase that is regulated by the Ca2+
/calmodulin complex. CaMKII is involved in many signaling cascades and is thought to be an important mediator of learning and memory. CaMKII is also necessary for Ca2+
 homeostasis and reuptake in cardiomyocytes, chloride transport in epithelia, positive T-cell selection, and CD8 T-cell activation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorylase kinase</span>

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase which activates glycogen phosphorylase to release glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen. PhK phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase at two serine residues, triggering a conformational shift which favors the more active glycogen phosphorylase “a” form over the less active glycogen phosphorylase b.

The PHLPP isoforms are a pair of protein phosphatases, PHLPP1 and PHLPP2, that are important regulators of Akt serine-threonine kinases and conventional/novel protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms. PHLPP may act as a tumor suppressor in several types of cancer due to its ability to block growth factor-induced signaling in cancer cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PKC alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C alpha (PKCα) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCA gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein kinase C zeta type</span>

Protein kinase C, zeta (PKCζ), also known as PRKCZ, is a protein in humans that is encoded by the PRKCZ gene. The PRKCZ gene encodes at least two alternative transcripts, the full-length PKCζ and an N-terminal truncated form PKMζ. PKMζ is thought to be responsible for maintaining long-term memories in the brain. The importance of PKCζ in the creation and maintenance of long-term potentiation was first described by Todd Sacktor and his colleagues at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center in 1993.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKCD</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C delta type is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCD gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKCE</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C epsilon type (PKCε) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCE gene. PKCε is an isoform of the large PKC family of protein kinases that play many roles in different tissues. In cardiac muscle cells, PKCε regulates muscle contraction through its actions at sarcomeric proteins, and PKCε modulates cardiac cell metabolism through its actions at mitochondria. PKCε is clinically significant in that it is a central player in cardioprotection against ischemic injury and in the development of cardiac hypertrophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKCQ</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C theta (PKC-θ) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCQ gene. PKC-θ, a member of serine/threonine kinases, is mainly expressed in hematopoietic cells with high levels in platelets and T lymphocytes, where plays a role in signal transduction. Different subpopulations of T cells vary in their requirements of PKC-θ, therefore PKC-θ is considered as a potential target for inhibitors in the context of immunotherapy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKCI</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C iota type is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCI gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein kinase D1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Serine/threonine-protein kinase D1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKD1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKCH</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein kinase C eta type is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCH gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PRKD3</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Serine/threonine-protein kinase D3 (PKD3) or PKC-nu is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKD3 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BIM-1</span> Biological protein kinase C inhibitor

BIM-1 and the related compounds BIM-2, BIM-3, and BIM-8 are bisindolylmaleimide-based protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors. These inhibitors also inhibit PDK1 explaining the higher inhibitory potential of LY33331 compared to the other BIM compounds a bisindolylmaleimide inhibitor toward PDK1.

The insulin transduction pathway is a biochemical pathway by which insulin increases the uptake of glucose into fat and muscle cells and reduces the synthesis of glucose in the liver and hence is involved in maintaining glucose homeostasis. This pathway is also influenced by fed versus fasting states, stress levels, and a variety of other hormones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mezerein</span> Chemical compound

Mezerein is a toxic diterpene ester found in the sap of Daphne mezereum and related plants. Plants of the genera Euphorbiaceae and Thymelaeaceae possess a wide variety of different phorbol esters, which share the capacity of mimicking diacylglycerol (DAG) and thus activating different isoforms of protein kinase C. Mezerein was first isolated in 1975. It has antileukemic properties in mice, but it is also defined as a weak promoter of skin cancers in the same species. All parts of the plants contain an acrid and irritant sap that contains mezerein, thought to be the principal poison. The sap is especially prevalent in the bark and berries.

References

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  2. ↑ Ali ES, Hua J, Wilson CH, Tallis GA, Zhou FH, Rychkov GY, Barritt GJ (2016). "The glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue exendin-4 reverses impaired intracellular Ca2+ signalling in steatotic hepatocytes". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research. 1863 (9): 2135–46. doi: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.05.006 . PMID   27178543.
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  29. ↑ Amended FDA Protocol Submitted for Phase 2b Trial of Advanced Alzheimer’s Therapy. Aug 2016
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